<p>The Federal Building and United States Courthouse, erected in 1930, is a historic landmark located in downtown Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is part of the complex of federal buildings on Gold Avenue that includes the Old Post Office, Dennis Chavez Federal Building, and the Federal Building at 517 Gold SW.</p><br>
<p>The imposing six-story building, faced with limestone and buff-colored terra-cotta tile in a brick pattern with molded inlays, is topped with a Mediterranean-style red tile roof and a domed cupola. The building was designed by the Office of the Supervising Architect under James A. Wetmore.</p><br>
<p>The lobby of the Federal Building contains a mural by Loren Mozley titled The Rebellion of 1680 which depicts the Pueblo Revolt. Another mural, Justice Tempered with Mercy by Emil Bisttram, adorns the wall outside the District Courtroom on the sixth floor. This historically significant courtroom was used by the USA District Court until it relocated to the Dennis Chavez Building in 1965. The courtroom was restored to its original appearance in 1981.</p><br>
<p>The Federal Building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>This building appeared several times in the 2004 thriller Suspect Zero.</p><br>
<p>The Old Albuquerque High School is the historic former campus of Albuquerque High School in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It is located in the Huning Highlands neighborhood and is protected by the city as a historic landmark. It is located on the northeast corner of Central and Broadway NE, at the center of an area that has become known as East Downtown or EDo. The campus comprises five buildings, the oldest of which was built in 1914. After the school moved to a new location in 1974, the old buildings were left abandoned for decades before being renovated as loft apartments in the early 21st century. Old Albuquerque High was added to the New Mexico State Register of Cultural Properties in 1977.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The Old Albuquerque High campus comprises five buildings grouped around a central courtyard. All of the buildings were designed in the Gothic Revival style typical of early 20th-century school architecture.</p><br>
<p>Old Main is the original building, constructed in 1914. It is located on the southeast corner of the campus, facing Central Avenue. The three-story building was designed by Henry C. Trost and originally housed classrooms, a gymnasium, a library, an auditorium, and a science laboratory.</p><br>
<p>The Manual Arts Building was built in 1927 on the east side of campus, facing Arno Street. It has three stories and 27,000 ft&sup2; of floor area, and originally housed a woodshop and machine shop in addition to classrooms. It was designed by local architect George M. Williamson.</p><br>
<p>The Classroom Building (1937), Gymnasium (1938), and Library (1940) were all designed by Louis Hesselden and built with New Deal funding and Works Progress Administration labor. The Gymnasium, which sits at the north end of the campus, is the largest building with 68,000 ft&sup2; of floor area. The Classroom Building and the Library face Broadway on the west side of campus.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Old Main was built in 1914, replacing Albuquerque High&#39;s previous location in the Central School building downtown. At the time Albuquerque had only 12,000 residents, and critics complained that the new building was too large and would never reach its capacity of 500 students. This proved not to be the case as a second building was required just 13 years later, and the campus had grown to five buildings by 1940. Albuquerque High remained the only high school in the city until Highland High School opened in 1949.</p><br>
<p>In 1974, Albuquerque High School moved to a new location about one mile (1.6 km) to the north, leaving the old campus vacant. Albuquerque Public Schools eventually sold the buildings, and they were left to deteriorate over the next 25 years as various plans to reuse them fell through and the surrounding neighborhood became increasingly blighted.</p><br>
<h2>Redevelopment</h2><br>
<p>Efforts to renovate the former high school intensified in 1989 when the Albuquerque City Council authorized funds to purchase the property. In 1996, after years of legal wrangling, the city succeeded in acquiring four of the five campus buildings for $1.5 million. The city eventually settled on a plan to convert the buildings into loft apartments in a joint venture with a private developer, and work began in 2001. The Classroom Building and Old Main were the first to be renovated, followed by the Gymnasium, Library, and finally the separately-owned Manual Arts Building. The renovation preserved many interior details such as doors, handrails, and even blackboards. The gymnasium and library reading room are protected spaces and have also been preserved.</p><br>
<p>The success of the project spurred further revitalization efforts in the surrounding area, leading the city to draft an East Downtown master plan in 2005 to guide future development.</p><br>
<p>Kohala Historical Sites State Monument includes the National Historic Landmark Mookini Heiau and the birthplace of Kamehameha I.</p><br>
<p>It is located in remote North Kohala on the Island of Hawaii.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mookini Heiau is one of the oldest historical sites in Hawaii and among its most sacred. Mookini means "many lineages" or "many Moo" in the Hawaiian Language. Moo are large reptile goddesses honored by Hawaiians since before the time of Paao.</p><br>
<p>This heiau is a living spiritual temple and not just an historic artifact of the Hawaiian culture. Oral histories indicate the original temple on the site may be 1500 years old: the genealogy chant of the heiaus kahuna tells of Kuamoo Mo&#39;okini arriving here in 480, not from Samoa or Tahiti, but from the Persian Gulf of Middle East. Evidence suggests the current temple was built on the site of this smaller older one by Paao, who brought the Hawaiian Religion to the islands sometime between 1100 and 1300 A.D.</p><br>
<p>The current site includes the remains of the heiau measuring 250 x 130 with an open stone paved court enclosed by 20-high stone walls, and the sacrificial stone. The heiau is constructed of stones that are said to have been passed from hand to hand from the Pololū Valley, over 12 mi away. One tradition states that the heiau was completed by the menehune (mythical Hawaiian little people) in one night.</p><br>
<p>For centuries a strict set of rules (kapu) were enforced at the heiau. It was a closed heiau reserved exclusively for the Alii Nui (the highest chiefs) for praying and offering human sacrifices, primarily to the war god Kū. In Kohala Mookini Heiau was the focus of religious life and order. In November 1978 Kahuna Nui Leimomi Mookini Lum rededicated the Mookini Luakini to the "Children of the Land" (kama aina) and lifted the restrictive kapu. In doing this she made the site safe for all persons to enter the heiau and created a place of learning for future generations to discover the past. Her family has been taking care of the temple for centuries.</p><br>
<p>A few hundred yards away is Kamehameha Akahi ʻĀina Hānau, the birthplace of Kamehameha the Great. He is said to have been born here in 1758 as Halley&#39;s Comet passed overhead. The entrance to the site is on the south side. A rock is said to mark the precise place of the birth of Kamehameha.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Kohala Historical Sites State Monument can only be reached by a dirt road from Upolu Airport and is located about 1½ miles off the Akoni Pule Highway.</p><br>
<p>Turn North on Upolu Point road near the town of Hawi, and West at the small air strip.</p><br>
<p>A four-wheel drive vehicle is recommended, especially if it has been raining.</p><br>
<p>The birthplace includes a sign and enclosure located at coordinates 20&deg;15&prime;20&Prime;N latitude, 155&deg;52&prime;58&Prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<p>The Heiau was declared a National Historic Landmark on December 29, 1962, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 as site 66000284.</p><br>
<p>A clear day provides a striking view of Maui.</p><br>
<h2>Mahukona Heiau and Kukuipahu Heiau</h2><br>
<p>Near Mookini Heiau are two other smaller heiaus whose access is limited. Mahukona Heiau, dedicated to Lono god, nine miles from Mookini, rises from a steep hillside. Navigators used to be trained here, in an open air setting where night skies, off-shore clouds, winds and ocean currents could be studied, to pursue voyages across the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Kukuipahu Heiau, dedicated to Kāne god, is located in the Kohala Mountains. It is one of the three heiaus that formed a spiritual triangle in North Kohala, with heiaus dedicated to Ku, Lono and Kāne.</p><br>
<p>Divinity Hall, built in 1826, is the oldest building in the Harvard Divinity School at Harvard University. It is located at 14 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>The Hall was designed by Solomon Willard and Thomas Sumner, and dedicated on August 29, 1826, with William Ellery Channing giving the dedicatory speech, "The Christian Ministry." It was the first Harvard building constructed outside Harvard Yard. As George Huntston Williams wrote in his 1954 history of the Divinity School, theological students needed to be isolated from undergraduates lest they drink up "more of the spirit of the University than of the spirit of their profession." A decade later, on July 15, 1838, Ralph Waldo Emerson delivered his famous Divinity School Address, "Acquaint Thyself at First Hand with Deity," in the Hall.</p><br>
<p>The building is a rectangular two-story brick building, laid in Flemish bond, with only minimal brownstone trim. It has a hip roof that is only broken by a gable at the center of the long side, part of a projecting central section three bays wide. The build has a pair of entrances on either side of this central section, which are framed by Greek Revival Doric porticos.</p><br>
<p>In its early days, Divinity Hall contained the entire Divinity School. It was later used as a dormitory, then classrooms. Notable residents have included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, and philosopher George Santayana. Its chapel contains a fine organ by George S. Hutchings, recently restored.</p><br>
<p>Today, the building houses classrooms, faculty offices, and several administrative offices, including the Office of Ministry Studies, the Office of Religion and Public Life, and the Office of Diversity, Inclusion and Belonging.</p><br>
<p>Grain Belt is a brand of beer brewed in the American state of Minnesota, by the August Schell Brewing Company. The beer has been produced in a number of varieties. Grain Belt Golden was the original style introduced in 1893. The current offerings are: Grain Belt Premium, first introduced in 1947; Grain Belt Premium Light; Grain Belt Nordeast, introduced on April 7, 2010; and the newest offering, Grain Belt Lock & Dam, introduced in 2016. It was originally produced by the Minneapolis Brewing Company which formed with the merger of four smaller brewers in 1891. Soon after introduction, Grain Belt became the company&#39;s flagship product. It was brewed at the original Grain Belt brewery in Minneapolis, Minnesota until 1976. A series of other owners followed, and Schell took over the product line in 2002.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Name and logo</h3><br>
<p>The name refers to the "Grain Belt" of the American Midwest where much of the worlds supply of barley, corn, soybeans and other grains are produced. The diamond-shaped logo was introduced early on, though it wasnt until the late 1930s that a rendering of a bottlecap was added in the background.</p><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The Grain Belt name first appeared in 1893 as the "Golden Grain Belt Old Lager," then brewed by the Minneapolis Brewing Company. The Minneapolis Brewing Company was a conglomerate of four other Minneapolis-based breweries, formed in 1890 by the consolidation of the F.D. Noerenberg Brewery, John Orth Brewing Company, Heinrich Brewing Association, and Germania Brewing Association. It was one of the largest breweries in the United States at that time.</p><br>
<p>Grain Belt Golden, a traditional golden German-style lager, was popular, but Prohibition halted production from 1920 until 1933. The company temporarily changed its name to Golden Grain Juice Company and, like many other brewers, turned to making near beer and soft drinks until repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. Grain Belt Beer returned to taverns in October 1933 with bottled beer reappearing in December 1933.</p><br>
<p>World War II brought rationing, and the company briefly had to drop cans altogether and resort to using green glass in its bottles, rather than the standard amber color which offered better protection from light. Sale of beer in bottles and cans had become dominant over draft sales in drinking establishments, so the brewer experimented with all sorts of packaging innovations, expanding the line after the war ended. A premium beer, called Grain Belt Premium, entered production in 1947. Conetop cans sealed with caps disappeared in the 1950s in favor of flat-top steel cans.</p><br>
<h3>Grain Belt Breweries</h3><br>
<p>Minneapolis Brewing company officially changed its name to Grain Belt Breweries in 1967 after purchasing the Storz Brewing Company of Omaha, Nebraska, United States, which marketed Storz Beer and Storz Tap Beer in bottles, cans and draft. Grain Belt also took over the line of the New Ulm, Minnesota-based Hauenstein Brewery two years later. The company&#39;s main slogan — intoned by a deep male voice on TV ads — was, "Been a long time a-brewing." Eventually Grain Belt introduced a new beer called GBX Malt Liquor. For many years, the company also brewed Grain Belt Bock Beer for limited release in the spring. Grain Belt billboard signs could be seen on the scoreboard at Minnesota Vikings games and the beer was a popular choice in the stands at Minnesota Twins games. The label featured the image of a bubbling water fountain, which had been built on the park-like grounds of the brewery to tout the pure water used in the brewing process. Another ad slogan was, "From perfect brewing water...."</p><br>
<p>At the end of the 1960s, Grain Belt was the 18th-largest brewing company in the US, and a major force in the Midwest. Primary competitors up to this point had been local rivals, Theodore Hamm and Jacob Schmidt, both in St. Paul, Gluek Brewing Company, in Minneapolis, Cold Spring Brewing Company in Cold Spring, Minnesota and a few other regional brewers. Business began to decline as better-capitalized national brewing companies such as Anheuser-Busch, Schlitz and Miller began targeting the markets of regional brewers like Grain Belt. These companies swooped into markets, often advertising heavily, dropping prices and forcing regional brands like Grain Belt into the background since the smaller regional brewers were unable to match the big brewer&#39;s advertising and promotional budgets. In 1975, stockholders decided to sell the Grain Belt company to area businessman Irwin Jacobs, and operation ceased by the end of the year.</p><br>
<h3>Decline</h3><br>
<p>In 1976 the remains were sold to G. Heileman Brewing Company (based in La Crosse, Wisconsin), which closed the original Minneapolis brewery and moved production to the former Jacob Schmidt brewery in St. Paul, Minnesota, which Heileman had purchased only a few years before. At the St. Paul facility, former rivals Grain Belt and Schmidt were brewed side by side with Heileman stablemates Old Style and Special Export for many years. Heileman also launched a low calorie version of Grain Belt called Grain Belt Light.</p><br>
<h3>Changes</h3><br>
<p>In 1989, G. Heileman, citing over-capacity, closed the St. Paul brewery and moved production of Grain Belt to its La Crosse, Wisconsin, brewery, taking production of the Grain Belt (and Schmidt) brands out of the Twin Cities for the first time. G. Heileman found itself faltering within a decade because of many of the same market pressures Grain Belt Breweries had faced in the 1970s. A group of investors was formed to purchase the Schmidt plant from Heileman. They also negotiated with Heileman to obtain the Schmidt brand, but Heileman declined to sell it. Instead, it offered the investors the rights to the Grain Belt brand. The investors accepted the counter offer, as it was a recognizable, established Twin Cities brand which it could market. The new company was called the Minnesota Brewing Company 1991. It thrived during the 1990s with sales peaking in 1996. Minnesota Brewing also performed extensive contract brewing for other beverage companies to improve efficiency and keep the plant operating closer to capacity.</p><br>
<h4>New ownership</h4><br>
<p>In 2001, the company launched a line of specialty craft beers under the "Brewer&#39;s Cave" and "Grain Belt Archive Series" brand names. These beers were high quality, all-malt products brewed without adjunct grains such as corn or rice. Most were highly hopped and very flavorful to appeal to the new breed of craft beer drinkers. Unfortunately, in a classic case of "too little, too late", these fine Grain Belt beers came a bit late to save the company, which was facing financial problems.</p><br>
<p>History repeated itself yet again, and by 2001 sales were off 50% from their 1996 highs.</p><br>
<p>The companys debt deepened, and Minnesota Brewing filed for bankruptcy in February 2002. On June 24, 2002 the brewerys doors were closed. The Grain Belt brand was bought in August 2002 by a longtime rival Minnesota brewer, the August Schell Brewing Company of New Ulm. Schells brews and packages Grain Belt Premium, Grain Belt Premium Light, Grain Belt Nordeast, and Grain Belt Lock & Dam, primarily for the Minnesota market. Grain Belt Premium has since become Schells most popular brand, and has earned an especially strong following in the younger demographic of the region. On February 16, 2018, Schell&#39;s announced that it would be adding to the Grain Belt family by canning its Grain Belt BLU variety (previously a Minnesota State Fair and limited release variety). Starting in 2015, Grain Belt released limited-edition 12 packs featuring football-themed labels and bottle cap games.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural legacy</h2><br>
<h3>The former brewery</h3><br>
<p>The former brewery building in Northeast, Minneapolis, located north of Broadway Street Northeast on the east bank of the Mississippi River, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. It was renovated and redeveloped by Ryan Companies for multiple tenants. The contributing structures include the Brewhouse, currently the home of RSP Architects, which was designed by the architectural firm of Wolff and Lehle; the power station (Boiler House); the Wagon Shed and Shops (Gasthaus), which has become the Pierre Bottineau Branch of Hennepin County Library; the Grain Belt Office Building (designed by Carl F. Struck); the Bottling House, including the 1969 addition, which now serves as a space for artist studios; the 1910 Warehouse, including its 1949 and 1957 additions, but not its 1964 addition, which has been developed into office and light industrial space; and a railroad spur. The Keg House is also part of the complex, but not part of the Registered Historic Place entry. The renovation has won the National Preservation Award from the American Institute of Architects. The area forms an anchor to the Northeast Minneapolis Arts District, including many members of the Northeast Minneapolis Arts Association. The 1964 addition to the warehouse will be demolished as part of the development of Sheridan Memorial Park.</p><br>
<h3>Sign on Nicollet Island</h3><br>
<p>In 1941, a 48-foot-high sign with the Grain Belt logo, illuminated by a mix of neon tubes and incandescent bulbs, was placed on the roof of the Marigold Ballroom in downtown Minneapolis. In 1950, the sign was moved to Nicollet Island, next to the Hennepin Avenue Bridge, and an illuminated green frame added around the logo. The sign sits on Nicollet Island, an island in the Mississippi, and is part of the Saint Anthony Falls Historic District. The sign was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016.</p><br>
<p>The sign&#39;s illumination failed sometime after 1966; it was restored in 1989 and the sign lit intermittently until 1996. On December 30, 2017, the sign was again relit following a 15-year restoration campaign and the replacement of all the neon tubes and incandescent bulbs with LEDs.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>Brooklyn rock band The Hold Steady mentions the "Grain Belt Bridge" in their song "Party Pit" from the album Boys and Girls in America.</p><br>
<p>Grain Belt Premium can be seen on the headstone of Marvin Erickson during the "Tailgate" episode of How I Met Your Mother.</p><br>
<p>In the 1996 movie Fargo, Carl (Steve Buscemi) and Gaear (Peter Stormare) can be seen drinking Grain Belt while waiting for Jerry (William H. Macy).</p><br>
<h2>Additional resources</h2><br>
<p>The of Grain Belt Breweries are available for research use at the.</p><br>
<p>Spiegel Grove, also known as Spiegel Grove State Park, Rutherford B. Hayes House, Rutherford B. Hayes Summer Home and Rutherford B. Hayes State Memorial was the estate of Rutherford B. Hayes, the 19th president of the United States, located at the corner of Hayes and Buckland Avenues in Fremont, Ohio. Spiegel is the German and Dutch word for mirror. The traditional story is that the estate was named by Hayes&#39; uncle Sardis Birchard, who first built it for his own residence. He named it for the reflective pools of water that collected on the property after a rain shower.</p><br>
<p>Rutherford Hayes inherited the estate and moved there in 1873. He died in 1893 and was buried in Oakwood Cemetery next to his wife who had died in 1889. Following the gift of this home to the state of Ohio for the Spiegel Grove State Park, their bodies were reinterred at Spiegel Grove in 1915. They are buried at a memorial on the property. The Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center, established in 1916, is also located here.</p><br>
<p>"Old Whitey", a war horse that served during the Civil War and belonged to then-Major (later Major General) Hayes, became the mascot of the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. The horse was buried at Spiegel Grove upon his death in 1879, with a grave marker reading Old Whitey A Hero of Nineteen Battles 1861–1865.</p><br>
<p>Spiegel Grove was designated as a National Historic Landmark on January 29, 1964.</p><br>
<p>On October 15, 1966, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The house was built around 1860 for Sardis Birchard as a two-story brick mansion. It featured many bedrooms and a wrap-around porch. In 1880, after Rutherford B. Hayes had moved in, he expanded the house by the addition of 5 new rooms, and the massive staircase that led all the way up to the 4th floor. In 1889, 6 more rooms were added to the house, giving it its current appearance. After the expansions, the house had more than 30 rooms and 10,000 ft&sup2; of living space.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The estate was given to the state for the Spiegel Grove State Park. Since then, the house has been open for tourists as a house museum. For a fee, visitors can view the various rooms as well as furniture, books, and other items in the house. Visitors are allowed to access most of the rooms on the first and second floors. The third and fourth floors are not open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Old Manse is a historic manse in Concord, Massachusetts, United States, notable for its literary associations. It is open to the public as a nonprofit museum owned and operated by the Trustees of Reservations. The house is located on Monument Street, with the Concord River just behind it. The property neighbors the North Bridge, a part of Minute Man National Historical Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Emerson years</h3><br>
<p>The Old Manse was built in 1770 for the Rev. William Emerson, father of minister William Emerson and grandfather of transcendentalist writer and lecturer Ralph Waldo Emerson. The elder Rev. Emerson was the town minister in Concord, chaplain to the Provincial Congress when it met at Concord in October 1774 and later a chaplain to the Continental Army. Emerson observed the fight at the North Bridge, a part of the Concord Fight, from his farm fields while his wife and children witnessed the fight from the upstairs windows of their house.</p><br>
<p>Emerson died in October 1776 in West Rutland, Vermont, while returning home from Fort Ticonderoga. His widow, Phebe Emerson, remarried to the Rev. Ezra Ripley, who succeeded Emerson as the minister at First Parish Church in Concord. Their family continued to live in the Old Manse. Ripley served as Concord&#39;s town minister for 63 years.</p><br>
<p>In October 1834, Ralph Waldo Emerson moved to Concord and boarded at the Manse where he lived with his aging step-grandfather Ezra Ripley. He shared the home with his mother Ruth, his brother Charles, and his aunt Mary Moody Emerson. While there, he wrote the first draft of his essay "Nature", a foundational work of the Transcendentalist movement. Also while living at the Old Manse, on January 24, 1835, Emerson proposed in a letter to Lydia Jackson. After their marriage, they moved elsewhere in Concord, to a home he named "Bush", now known as the Ralph Waldo Emerson House.</p><br>
<h3>Hawthorne years</h3><br>
<p>In 1842, the American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne rented the Old Manse for $100 a year. He moved in with his wife, transcendentalist Sophia Peabody, on July 9, 1842, as newlyweds. Peabody had previously visited Concord and met Ralph Waldo Emerson while working on a bas-relief portrait medallion of his brother Charles Emerson, who had died in 1836. She praised the town to Hawthorne, who responded, "Would that we could build our cottage this very now amid the scenes. My heart thirsts and languishes to be there". Prior to their arrival at the Manse, Henry David Thoreau created a vegetable garden for the couple.</p><br>
<p>The garden, intended as a wedding gift, included beans, peas, cabbages, and squash. The Hawthornes lived in the house for three years. In the upstairs room that Hawthorne used as his study, the pair etched affectionate statements into the window panes. The inscription reads:</p><br>
<p>On the first anniversary of his marriage, Hawthorne and his neighbor, poet Ellery Channing, searched the neighboring Concord River for the body of Martha Hunt, a local woman who drowned. Hawthorne wrote of the incident, "I never saw or imagined a spectacle of such perfect horror... She was the very image of death-agony." The incident inspired the climactic scene in his novel The Blithedale Romance (1852).</p><br>
<p>The Hawthornes hosted several notable guests while living here. In May 1845, future President of the United States Franklin Pierce visited along with their mutual Bowdoin College friend Horatio Bridge. Peabody recalled the meeting fondly and recorded her first impression of Pierce as "loveliness and truth of character and natural refinement." Another visitor was Margaret Fuller, whose sister Ellen had married another Concord writer named Ellery Channing in 1842. Upon hearing of her engagement, Fuller had written to Sophia Peabody, "If ever I saw a man who combined delicate tenderness to understand the heart of a woman, with quiet depths and manliness enough to satisfy her, it is Mr. Hawthorne."</p><br>
<p>During his time in the Old Manse, Hawthorne published about twenty sketches and tales, including "The Birth-Mark" and "Rappaccini&#39;s Daughter", which would be included in the collection Mosses from an Old Manse (1846). In the introduction to that collection, he described the Old Manse: "Between two tall gateposts of roughhewn stone... we behold the gray front of the old parsonage, terminating the vista of an avenue of black ash trees." Apocryphally, the Hawthornes were forced out of the home for not paying their rent. In actuality, the Ripley family wanted to reclaim the home for themselves. The Hawthornes moved to Salem in 1845. Returning to Concord seven years later, by then living on the other side of town at The Wayside, Sophia Hawthorne visited the Old Manse on October 1, 1852, and referred to it as "the beloved old house".</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<p>After the Hawthornes, the home was occupied by Sarah Bradford Ripley for several years. The house remained in use by the Emerson-Ripley family until 1939, and transitioned to the Trustees of Reservations on November 3, 1939. The house was conveyed complete with all its furnishings, and contains a remarkable collection of furniture, books, kitchen implements, dishware, and other items, as well as original wallpaper, woodwork, windows and architectural features.</p><br>
<p>The Old Manse was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966 and a Massachusetts Archaeological/Historic Landmark the same year.</p><br>
<p>The Manse is open seasonally for guided tours given by the Trustees of Reservations. The garden, originally created by Thoreau, has been recreated. The on-site book store in the house specializes in the American Revolution, women&#39;s history, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Transcendentalism, and sustainability.</p><br>
<p>The Original Highlands is a historic neighborhood in the Highlands area of Louisville, Kentucky, United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood was built on land surveyed in 1774 and granted to Colonial William Preston, surveyor of Fincastle County, Virginia. He died in 1781, and eventually his son, Major William Preston, and wife moved onto the land in 1814 and established a plantation called the "Briar Patch". The 1819 construction of the Louisville and Bardstown Turnpike (now Bardstown Road) would eventually lead to many people moving to the area. Before the American Civil War the area was agricultural and attracted many German immigrants, and was known as New Hamburg.</p><br>
<p>Formal subdivision began after the land was inherited by Preston&#39;s daughter, Susan Preston Christy (after whom Christy Avenue is named). In 1869, Sydney J. Rogers subdivided Hepburn Avenue between Barrett and Baxter. Interest in the neighborhood picked up with the extension of a horse-drawn streetcar line to Highland Avenue in 1871. The next subdivision was Hughes Addition, starting in 1875. Much of the rest of the land was subdivided by William Preston Johnson by 1891. The last was the Barr Subdivision in 1896.</p><br>
<p>Popularity was further increased by the establishment of Cherokee Park in 1891. Almost all of the land was developed by 1895. The vast majority of houses in the Original Highlands were constructed between 1860 and 1895, especially in the last 11 years of that period, during which 600 were built. The dwellings from before 1884 were mostly located along Breckinridge (formerly Howard), Christy, Baxter and Barret.</p><br>
<p>The area was simply called the Highlands because it sits on a ridge between the middle and south forks of Beargrass Creek, above the Ohio River flood plain. Today eight other neighborhoods in the area on the same ridge are also collectively called The Highlands. The Original Highlands name has developed to distinguish it from these neighborhoods; the Highlands sometimes specifically refers to this neighborhood.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architecture of the neighborhood is a mixture of large, wood framed and brick Victorian houses and working class shotgun houses, which often sit right next to each other.</p><br>
<h2>Contemporary history</h2><br>
<p>In recent years the area has attracted many professionals because of its proximity to downtown and the Baxter Avenue/Bardstown Road and Barret Avenue commercial corridors which include arts galleries, eclectic shopping, and night life.</p><br>
<p>National Products, a small factory at the corner of Breckinridge Street and Baxter Avenue, produces more disco balls than any other factory in the world. The stretch of Baxter Avenue between Highland Avenue and Broadway is known as one of Louisville&#39;s most popular destinations with its mix of bars, restaurants, galleries and shops. The Barret Avenue commercial corridor is an emerging art zone due to the large number of galleries.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is home to the Original Highlands Art and Music Festival. Held on Baxter Avenue each September, the festival features local and national music acts along with art and vendor booths.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is also host to the annual Highlands Louisville Halloween Parade, Louisville Zombie Attack and Ancient Order of Hibernians St. Patrick&#39;s Day Parade.</p><br>
<p>The area is also well known for its numerous dining establishments, giving it the nickname "Restaurant Row".</p><br>
<p>The Original Highlands&#39; boundaries are East Broadway on the north, Bardstown Road/Baxter Avenue on the east, Rufer Avenue on the south and Barret Avenue on the west. The Original Highlands Neighborhood Association also works closely with residents on Ellwood Avenue, located just to the south of Winter Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>As of 2000, the population of the Original Highlands was 1,580, of which 89.4% are white, 6.8% are listed as other, 2.7% are black, and 1.1% are Hispanic. College graduates are of the 34.3% population, people without a high school degree are 12.6%. Males outnumber females 53.7% to 46.3%.</p><br>
<p>Bennett Place is a former farm and homestead in Durham, North Carolina, which was the site of the last surrender of a major Confederate army in the American Civil War, when Joseph E. Johnston surrendered to William T. Sherman. The first meeting  saw Sherman agreeing to certain political demands by the Confederates, which were promptly rejected by the Union cabinet in Washington. Another meeting had to be held  to agree on military terms only, in line with Robert E. Lee’s recent surrender to Ulysses S. Grant. This effectively ended the war.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman&#39;s March to the Sea, he turned north through the Carolinas for the Carolinas Campaign. Confederate President Jefferson Davis met his General Joseph E. Johnston in Greensboro, North Carolina, while Sherman had stopped in Raleigh.</p><br>
<p>Robert E. Lees beleaguered Army of Northern Virginia surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. Though Davis wished strongly to continue the war, Johnston sent a courier to the Union troops encamped at Morrisville Station, with a message to General Sherman, offering a meeting between the lines to discuss a truce. Johnstons army was still an active fighting force with an available line of retreat along which, according to Davis, "ample supplies" had been placed.</p><br>
<p>Johnston, escorted by a detachment of about 60 troopers of the 5th South Carolina Cavalry Regiment, traveled east along the Hillsborough Road toward Durham Station in Durham, Orange County. Sherman was riding west to meet him, with an escort of 200 men from the 9th and 13th Pennsylvania, 8th Indiana and 2nd Kentucky Cavalry. The farm of James and Nancy Bennett at Bennett Place, sometimes known as Bennett Farm, was a convenient place for privacy.</p><br>
<p>The first day&#39;s discussion (April 17) was intensified by the telegram Sherman handed to Johnston, informing of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. They met the following day, April 18, and signed terms of surrender. However, on April 24, Grant arrived and informed Sherman that the terms had been rejected by the presidential cabinet in Washington because they exceeded the terms that Grant had given Lee and included civil matters. The opposing generals met again on April 26, 1865, and with the assistance of Gen. John M. Schofield, agreed to new terms omitting the controversial sections. The agreement disbanded all active Confederate forces in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, totaling 89,270 soldiers, which was the largest group to surrender during the Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Largest surrender of the American Civil War</h2><br>
<p>The difficulty in reaching a surrender agreement lay in part in Johnstons desire, influenced by President Davis, for more than the purely military surrender that Major General Sherman offered. Shermans original terms matched those offered by Lt. General Ulysses S. Grant to General Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, but Johnston along with General John C. Breckinridge, also serving as Secretary of War for the Confederacy, insisted on resolutions of political issues, including the reestablishment of state governments, return of some weapons to state arsenals and civil rights after the war. Sherman, in accordance with Lincoln&#39;s stated overall wishes for a compassionate and forgiving end to the war, agreed on terms that included the political issues. Sherman was unaware that on March 3, Lincoln had given Grant orders to discuss only military matters with Lee. Lincoln was later assassinated.</p><br>
<p>After reading the original Sherman–Johnston terms of surrender, United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton, taking a position in accordance with Lincolns instructions to Grant, persuaded a unanimous Federal cabinet to reject the terms. Sherman was instructed to call Johnston back to the table and request the military surrender of Johnstons army. In response, Jefferson Davis ordered Johnston to disband his infantry and escape with his mounted troops. However, Johnston disobeyed his orders and agreed to meet again with Major General Sherman at Bennett Farm. The second negotiation session took place on April 26, 1865. The opposing generals agreed to new military surrender terms that were substantially identical to the ones Grant had given to Lee, supplemented with corollary implementation terms written by Schofield pertaining to rations and return of the paroled soldiers to their homes. The surrender agreement ended the war for the 89,270 soldiers in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. Three more primary surrenders would follow in Citronelle, Alabama; Galveston, Texas; and Doaksville, Oklahoma.</p><br>
<h2>Bennett Place State Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>James and Nancy Bennett, owners of the meeting place, were simple yeoman farmers who had suffered tremendously during the four years of war. They lost a son and son-in-law: Lorenzo, who served in the 27th North Carolina, buried in Winchester, Virginia; and their daughter Eliza&#39;s husband, Robert Duke, who died in a Confederate Army hospital and is buried in Lynchburg, Virginia. Their 3rd child, Alfonzo, was not in the war but died during the Civil War years (1864). The Bennetts never fully recovered from the war, and in 1878, James Bennett died and the family moved to the new community of Durham to begin a life without him.</p><br>
<p>The farm was abandoned and fell into ruin; a fire finally destroying the farmhouse in 1921. In 1923 the Unity monument was dedicated on the site. Among the many contributors to the preservation of this historic landmark were the Duke, Everett, and Morgan families.</p><br>
<p>In 1960 the site was fully reclaimed and restored by local preservationists. It was reconstructed as a two-story log structure covered by weatherboards with a gable roof and a shed addition. Also on the property are a log kitchen and smokehouse. It was then turned over to the State of North Carolina and made a state historic site.</p><br>
<p>The Bennett Place State Historic Site now belongs to the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources and is located in the west end of Durham, near Duke University. The site is open to the public, Tuesday-Saturday, 9am-5pm, with a visitor center, museum, theater presentation, "Dawn of Peace", research library, gift shop, and the reconstruction of the Bennett farm. Living history programs and the commemoration of the surrender take place throughout the year. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970.</p><br>
<p>On April 15, 2010, the Bennett Place Historic Site unveiled a new painting by Civil War artist Dan Nance, entitled "The First Meeting". On the same day, the site gave its first William Vatavuk Scholarship, a yearly scholarship for students who wish to major in history in college. The scholarship honors the late William Vatavuk, who wrote Dawn of Peace, the first guidebook for the historic site.</p><br>
<p>Gascoigne Bluff is a bluff next to the Frederica River on the western side of the island of St. Simons, Georgia which was a Native American campground, the site of a Franciscan monastery named San Buenaventura, and the site of the Province of Georgia&#39;s first naval base.</p><br>
<p>It was named for Captain James Gascoigne of the sloop-of-war, HMS Hawk, which led some of the first British settlers to the coast of Georgia.</p><br>
<p>Timber harvested from 2,000 Southern live oak trees from Gascoigne Bluff was used to build the USS Constitution and the five other original US Navy frigates, under the Naval Act of 1794. The Constitution is known as "Old Ironsides" for the way the cannonballs bounced off the hard oak planking.</p><br>
<p>This area was one of several St. Simons Island plantations owned by John Couper (father of James Hamilton Couper, see below) who lived at Cannon Point, St. Simons Island, and who donated his library of 20,000 volumes to the Library of Congress.</p><br>
<h2>Hamilton Plantation</h2><br>
<p>The remains of this antebellum-era plantation contain two surviving slave cabins, which were part of a set of four built before 1833. Among the better examples of surviving slave cabins in the South, they are composed of tabby, a cement consisting of lime, water, and crushed oyster shells. The cabins have built-in windows and a central chimney.</p><br>
<p>James Hamilton Couper, namesake of the owner and manager of the plantation, was an architect and a builder. He designed and built the cabins to house the slaves who served in the plantation&#39;s main house. Utilizing a duplex plan to house more than one family, the cabins were originally part of a planned community of slave dwellings.</p><br>
<p>The Hamilton Plantation and Gasciogne Bluff were sold after the Civil War to Anson Dodge and the Georgia Land and Lumber Company of New York in 1874 to erect lumber mills.</p><br>
<p>The Cassina Garden Club owns the cabins and offers tours on Wednesday mornings in June through August. The cabins are near Arthur J. Moore Drive.</p><br>
<p>The New York Cancer Hospital  on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City was a cancer treatment and research institution founded in 1884. The building was located at 455 Central Park West between West 105th and 106th Streets, and built between 1884 and 1886 with additions made between 1889 and 1890; it was designed by Charles Coolidge Haight in the Late Gothic and French Chateau styles – inspired by the chateaux of the Loire Valley. It was the first hospital in the United States dedicated specifically for the treatment of cancer, and the second in the world after the London Cancer Hospital. After outgrowing the original building and moving, it became what is today known as Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center.</p><br>
<p>Around 1955, the hospital became Towers Nursing Home, and the building began its decline. It was designated a New York City landmark in 1976, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, and was converted into luxury condominium apartments in 2001–2005 designed by Perkins Eastman Architects.</p><br>
<h2>Beginning</h2><br>
<p>Although he died before it opened, J. Marion Sims was much involved in the founding of the hospital. Sims had been president of the American Medical Association and was arguably the countrys most famous physician. He had resigned as director of the first Womans Hospital, which he had founded, when the hospital board forbade the admission of cervical cancer patients.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1884, former President Ulysses S. Grant developed throat cancer. He lived in a brownstone at 3 East 66th Street, and his ensuing decline caught the attention of the nation. Considered incurable, as well as contagious and shameful, Grant&#39;s death the following year brought awareness of the disease. Although his cancer was inoperable, others were more fortunate, since the development of anesthesia in the mid-19th century had finally given doctors a surgical treatment for cancer.</p><br>
<p>In the year of Grants diagnosis, John Jacob Astor III, Elizabeth H. Cullum, John E. Parsons, Thomas A. Emmet, Joseph W. Drexel and other prominent New Yorkers laid the cornerstone for the New York Cancer Hospital, the countrys first to devote itself exclusively to the care of cancer patients. Designed by Charles C. Haight and completed in 1887, the first portion of the hospital, designated solely for women, was at the southwest corner of 106th and Central Park West. At the dedication, Grant&#39;s physician, Fordyce Barker, said that cancer was not due to misery, to poverty, or bad sanitary surroundings, or to ignorance or to bad habits, but a disease afflicting the cultured, the wealthy and the inhabitants of salubrious localities."</p><br>
<p>In 1890 the hospital was expanded south, and in both sections Haight designed circular wards, about 40 ft in diameter, in part to facilitate better observation by a nurse at a central desk and in part because the design offered more space between the heads of the beds. Ventilation was a key concern, so a duct ran up the centers of the wards to remove what was said to be intense odors caused by the disease. Haight worked the round wards into the exterior architecture, which he executed in deep red brick and soft brown Belleville brownstone, with great conical towers irregularly placed on the three fronts.</p><br>
<p>The big, broad towers gave the hospital the character of a French château, like the Château de Chambord at Chambord, Loir-et-Cher, France, and made it one of the most important pieces of institutional architecture in New York even until today. It is widely said it would much more readily be taken for an art museum than for a hospital.</p><br>
<h2>Medical innovation</h2><br>
<p>During the hospitals inauguration, treatment for cancer was mostly palliative. The hospital offered what was considered the best treatments available for that time. Cancer treatment then meant, at best, easing pain and making the sufferer as comfortable as possible. Many patients came to the New York Cancer Hospital, in effect, to die, assuaged by morphine. Other forms of relief included carriage rides in Central Park and Sunday services in the hospitals Chapel of St. Elizabeth of Hungary, patron saint of the suffering.</p><br>
<p>From its beginnings, the NYCH seemed fraught with misfortune. Just months after laying the cornerstone to the new hospital, one of its primary benefactors, Elizabeth Hamilton Cullum, succumbed to uterine cancer. Coincidentally, John Jacob Astors wife, Charlotte Augusta Astor also died of uterine cancer just a week shy of the hospitals grand opening in December 1887, missing her chance to be presumably cured. Due in part to his generous financial contributions to the facility, the New York Cancer Hospital&#39;s first wing was appropriately dedicated the "Astor Pavilion".</p><br>
<p>Inspired as much by modern medical theory as by 16th-century French châteaux, the architect Charles Haight&#39;s round towers were designed to deter germs and dirt from accumulating in sharp corners, which at the time was considered a harboring ground for disease. An air shaft ran vertically through the center of each tower to prevent air from stagnating in the wards. This design was considered the very latest in 19th-century ventilation technology: The New York Times commented in 1888 that "altogether, the features marked a new departure in hospital construction and make this admirable structure a model of its kind."</p><br>
<p>The 20th century brought new techniques in cancer treatment, including radiation therapy. In 1921, Marie Curie visited the New York Cancer Hospital, by then renamed the General Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases, to see the brick and steel vault where the hospital kept its four grams of radium—at the time the largest accumulation in the world. Dr. Edward H. Rogers, who was escorting her, assured The Times that there is no case on record of anyone being injured in health by radium. He denied that Curie had been harmed by the radioactive material, saying she had been ill recently only from anemia. In this period the hazards of radium were beginning to emerge, sparking defensive claims by its proponents. She died in 1934, unsurprisingly due to radium poisoning. In retrospect, early radiation treatments were often worse than the disease they were meant to cure. Radiation caused severe burns and, in some cases, additional cancers. New York Cancer Hospital may have been hailed a success for its good intentions, but there was no end to the suffering of those within. Plagued by the growing death rate, the NYCH had its own crematorium located in the basement of the facility, all the more dreadful by the vision, through its gothic windows, of the tall smokestack to the west of the main building.</p><br>
<p>Largely because cancer remained so deadly, the hospital soon ran into financial troubles. It came to be known as "the Bastille," a place to be feared and avoided by patients and patrons. At the turn of the century, administrators of the beleaguered hospital changed its name to the General Memorial Hospital, and again in the early 1920s to the General Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases. Through the decades, the hospital endured its arduous dedication for its principle grounds of finding a cure for cancer.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, the General Memorial Hospital for the Treatment of Cancer and Allied Diseases moved out of the outdated Central Park West facility to its new location on the East Side. There it grew to become what is present day Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center. It was during this time that the former New York Cancer Hospital building began its decline. Under the new ownership of nursing home magnate Bernard Bergman, it was turned into a facility called Towers Nursing Home. The nursing home later became infamous for its negligence and lack of standards. The elderly patients testified to "atrocious conditions," including inadequate heat, pest infestations, physical abuse and negligence. The patients weren&#39;t the only ones being neglected either. The old facilities were unkempt, filthy, and a "pungent odor" filled the air. The once immaculate building became a sad derelict place. A state and federal investigation ensued following a probe into allegations of Medicaid and tax fraud that ultimately caused the home to close its doors in 1974. The former New York Cancer Hospital was left in such a disastrous condition following the closure of the nursing home that there were talks of demolition before the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the hospital building a historic landmark in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Redevelopment</h2><br>
<p>The medical hospital, neglected, lay overgrown and vandalized for many decades. In the neighborhood the building become popularly known as "the castle" due to its gothic round towers. Through the years, many promising developers expressed interest in the decaying property. Among some of them were hotelier and real-estate developer Ian Schrager, best known as part owner of Studio 54, whose attempt to renovate the landmark into luxury apartments failed. The old hospital lay abandoned for nearly three decades until March 2000, when the Chicago-based developer MCL Companies became involved. With generous financing, Daniel E. McLean, president and chief executive of the MCL Companies bought the property for $21 million and began construction. But like numerous predecessors he was forced to halt the work due to financial holdups following the September 11 attacks. McLean envisioned a plan that called for massive renovation of the old hospital remnant into modern luxury condominiums, including a new modern 26-story tower adjacent to the landmark building. Among the new tenants would be Columbia University, who bought several entire floors to use as residence to house senior faculty and visiting dignitaries. The purchase by Columbia, as well as a new construction loan, allowed McLean&#39;s project to get back on track after work was halted due to lack of money following 9/11.</p><br>
<p>By early 2005, conversion of the old landmark hospital into condominiums, now called 455 Central Park West, was completed, with units selling for as much as $7 million. The new apartments in the old hospital building highlight its distinct features, most notably cavernous circular rooms with lofty ceilings, while those in the new tower have splendid views overlooking Central Park. Tenants enjoy such amenities as a spa, indoor pool, and 24-hour concierge service. The building was, even then, reputed to be haunted.</p><br>
<p>The Alabama State Capitol, listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the First Confederate Capitol, is the state capitol building for Alabama. Located on Capitol Hill, originally Goat Hill, in Montgomery, it was declared a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960. Unlike every other state capitol, the Alabama Legislature does not meet there, but at the Alabama State House. The Capitol has the governor&#39;s office and otherwise functions as a museum.</p><br>
<p>Alabama has had five political capitals and four purpose-built capitol buildings during its history since it was designated as a territory of the United States. The first was the territorial capital in St. Stephens in 1817; the state organizing convention was held in Huntsville in 1819, and the first permanent capital was designated in 1820 as Cahaba. The legislature moved the capital to Tuscaloosa in 1826, where it was housed in a new three-story building. The 1826 State House in Tuscaloosa was later used as Alabama Central Female College. After it burned in 1923, the ruins were retained within Capitol Park.</p><br>
<p>Finally, in 1846, the capital was moved again, when Montgomery was designated. The first capitol building in Montgomery, located where the current building stands, burned after two years. The current building was completed in 1851, and additional wings were added over the course of the following 140 years. These changes followed population growth in the state as many slave-holding European-American settlers arrived. Large parts of the state were subsequently developed for cotton cultivation.</p><br>
<p>The current capitol building temporarily served as the Confederate Capitol while Montgomery served as the first political capital of the Confederate States of America in 1861, before Richmond, Virginia was designated as the capital. Delegates meeting as the Montgomery Convention in the Senate Chamber drew up the Provisional Constitution of the Confederate States on February 4, 1861. The convention also adopted the Permanent Constitution here on March 11, 1861.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Architecturally, the building is Greek Revival in style with some Beaux-Arts influences. The central core of the building and the east wing to the structure&#39;s rear, is three stories built over a below-grade basement. The north and south wings are two-stories over a raised basement. The current front facade is approximately 350 ft wide and 119 ft tall from ground level to the top of the lantern on the dome.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>First Alabama State Capitol in Montgomery</h3><br>
<p>The first capitol building to be built in Montgomery was designed by Stephen Decatur Button (1813-1897), of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Andrew Dexter Jr. (1779-1837), one of Montgomery&#39;s town founders and influential in the history of Alabama, kept a prime piece of property empty in anticipation of the capital city eventually being moved to Montgomery from Tuscaloosa. This property, atop what was then known as Goat Hill due to its use as a pasture, was chosen as the site for the new state capitol structure. Construction began in 1846, with the new completed building presented to the state on December 6, 1847.</p><br>
<p>Button&#39;s designed building was stuccoed brick, with two full stories set over a rusticated raised basement. A two-story monumental portico with six Composite columns, topped by a broad pediment, was centered on the middle five bays of the front elevation. A central dome, 40 ft in diameter, sat directly on a supporting ring at the main roof level behind the portico. The small dome was crowned with an elaborate Cupola lantern on top patterned after the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. This first capitol building unfortunately burned on December 14, 1849, little more than only two years after its completion. The ruins were cleared by March 1850, with a new replacement building soon to follow.</p><br>
<h3>Second (Current) Alabama State Capitol in Montgomery</h3><br>
<p>The current Alabama State Capitol is the sixth State House or Capitol structure in the history of Alabama and the second to be built in the current state capital city of Montgomery. It was built from 1850 to 1851, with Barachias Holt as supervising architect and construction superintendent. Holt, originally from Exeter, Maine, in New England was a master craftsman / mechanic by trade. Following his work on the second Alabama State Capitol in Montgomery, he created a successful sash window, door, and window blinds manufacturing factory in Montgomery.</p><br>
<p>The new building used the original remaining brick foundations and general layout of Buttons previous structure, with modifications by Holt. The modifications included a taller full three-story building over a basement and a three-story front portico with prominent distinctive columns, this time without a pediment. Holts dome was a departure from the previous capitol work also; his wood and cast iron dome was supported on a ring of Corinthian columns and topped with a simple twelve-sided small glazed glass windows in the top lantern. John P. and James D. Randolph were the principal construction contractors. had previously completed extensive brickwork on the William Nichols-designed campus lay-out of buildings for the new University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa. Randolph was also in charge of the carpentry work, which was likely accomplished by subcontractors. Nimrod E. Benson and Judson Wyman were the building supervisors.</p><br>
<p>The new Capitol building was first occupied by both chambers of the Alabama Legislature on October 1, 1851. The clock over the portico was installed four months later in February 1852. The clock, along with a bell, was purchased by the City of Montgomery and presented to the state in 1852. In proportion to the capitol building, the clock appears as a square white box with black dials and crowned with a gabled roof. The dials are 10 ft in diameter with 4 ft minute hands and a 3 ft hour hands. It has been criticized as architecturally inappropriate on various occasions since its initial installation.</p><br>
<p>With the secession of Alabama and six other Deep South states and subsequent formation of the Confederacy in February 1861, the building served as its first capitol until May 22, 1861. A commemorative brass marker in the shape of a six-pointed star is set into the marble floor of the front portico at the precise location where Jefferson Davis stood on February 18, 1861, to take his oath of office as the only President of the Confederate States of America.</p><br>
<p>In 1901, delegates met at the Capitol to draft a new revision of the Constitution of Alabama. Convention chair John B. Knox said they were there to end "the menace of negro domination." The new constitution enshrined "White Supremacy by Law" and consolidated and centralized power at the Capitol and away from local county and town governments.</p><br>
<p>In 1961 Governor John Patterson flew a seven-starred version of the former "Stars and Bars" over the capitol for several days in celebration of the centennial of the American Civil War. His successor, the 45th Governor George C. Wallace (1919-1998, served three non-consecutive terms: 1963-1967, 1971-1979, 1983-1987), attracted national attention, by raising the rebel Confederate Battle Flag of 1863 over the Capitol dome on April 25, 1963, as a symbol of defiance to the federal government; this was the date of his meeting with visiting United States Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (1925-1968, served 1961-1963), (the younger brother of the 35th President John F. Kennedy back in the White House in Washington, D.C.) to discuss the racial desegregation of the University of Alabama at Tuscaloosa, in the ongoing national civil rights movement and social struggle since the mid-1950s.</p><br>
<p>The flag continued to be flown over the State Capitol for almost 30 more years. Several African American legislators and members of the state chapter of the NAACP were arrested in 1988 after attempting to remove the flag. In 1991 the flag was removed during renovations to the dome, and its return was barred by a 1993 state court decision. It ruled that an 1895 state statute allows only the national and state flags to be flown over the capitol building.</p><br>
<p>The building served as home to the Alabama Legislature until 1985, when it moved to the new Alabama State House. Officially, this move was temporary, since the Alabama Constitution requires that the Legislature meet in the capitol. In 1984, a constitutional amendment was passed that allowed the Legislature to move to another building if the capitol were to be renovated. The renovation started in 1985 and was completed in 1992 by the architecture group Holmes and Holmes. When the capitol was reopened, the Governor of Alabama and numerous other state offices moved back into the building, but the legislature remained at the State House.</p><br>
<p>On May 7, 2009, the legislature reconvened in the capitol building for the first time since September 20, 1985, due to flooding in the State House. This required some adapting, as the capitol did not have desks in the House chamber, and those in the Senate chamber were 1861 replicas. Neither chamber has a computerized voting system. The capitol building&#39;s heating and air conditioning is supplied from the State House. Because the electricity had been turned off in the State House due to the flooding, there was no air conditioning in the capitol.</p><br>
<h2>The building</h2><br>
<h3>The exterior</h3><br>
<p>The original core of the 1850-1851 building, as well as the subsequent additions of 1885, 1906, 1912, and extensive 1985-1992 renovations project, is essentially Greek Revival architecture in style. The original 1850-18511 three-story core of the building features bays delineated by Doric pilasters and a monumental three-story hexastyle portico utilizing the Composite order. The original core of the building is 150 x, with an original central rear judiciary wing measuring 40 x. The first extension to the rear added another 70 x. Each side-wing is 100 x.</p><br>
<p>The additions started with an extension to the east / rear wing on the building&#39;s rear facade (East Front) in 1885. Then a south wing with more elaborate Beaux-Arts architecture (Classical Revival) styles of influences was added in 1906. A close externally identical north wing on the opposite side was completed six years later in 1912. These two matching side-wings were designed by Montgomery architect Frank Lockwood, in consultation with Charles Follen McKim of the famous architectural firm McKim, Mead & White of New York City. The symmetrical north and south side-wings with newer enlarged legislative chambers for the two houses of the Alabama Senate and the Alabama House of Representatives in the bicameral body of the Alabama State Legislature. Each wing were each joined to the 1851 structure with a narrow hyphen connecting structure. Each hyphen features a recessed two-story Greek Ionic style portico on the west facade. Both of the adjoining side-wings for the Senate and House feature two-story hexastyle Ionic entrance porticoes on their north and south elevations, respectively. The west and east facades of these wings also feature decorative two-story hexastyle pseudo-porticoes with engaged Ionic columns. A new east wing addition with a new three-story tetrastyle portico was built during the 1985–1992 restoration / renovation project. The new portico includes columns that match the Composite order of the original West Front main entrance portico on the 1851 west side elevation.</p><br>
<h3>The interior</h3><br>
<p>Upon entering the ground floor of the capitol building, one enters the main stair-hall. It is the location of cantilevered stairways that spiral up to the third floor. The twin cantilevered spiral staircases are among the buildings finest original architectural features. Due to his renown in Alabama and surrounding states as a bridge builder, the Alabama Legislature passed a special law that exempted him from the states manumission laws, which normally required that any freed slaves leave the state within one year of gaining their freedom. During the post-war Reconstruction Era he later was elected and served two terms in the Alabama House of Representatives, in the building that he had helped to design and build two decades before.</p><br>
<p>Immediately east of the stair-hall is the ground floor of the rotunda. From there, hallways leading to offices branch off into the north and south wings. The next major room on the ground floor is the old Supreme Court Chamber, part of the original capitol plan. Located in the east (rear) wing, it is the only portion of the wing dating back to 1851. It is a large rectangular room, one story high, with a concave entry wall and two robust Ionic columns visually dividing the space near the center of the room. Later east wing expansions continue on eastward from this room.</p><br>
<p>The second floor is accessed via the main stairhall. From there the open rotunda is accessed to the east. The rotunda leads to the east wing offices, the old Senate Chamber to the north and the old House of Representatives Chamber to the south.</p><br>
<p>The interior of the Capitol building is centered on the axial rotunda, which is topped by a large dome. The rotunda is open from the second floor and through the third floor to the top of the dome. The dome interior is decorated with eight painted murals by Roderick MacKenzie, a Scottish-born artist who relocated from the British Isles / United Kingdom to the American South and Alabama. The murals illustrate MacKenzie&#39;s artistic interpretation of the history of Alabama as he read and learned about it. They were executed on canvas, painted from 1926 to 1930 at his Mobile studio and then shipped to Montgomery by railroad for installation in July 1930.</p><br>
<p>The murals depict the hostile meeting of Hernando de Soto and Tuskaloosa in 1540, the establishment of the colonial French capital of Mobile by Pierre Le Moyne d&#39;Iberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville from 1702 to 1711, the surrender of William Weatherford to Andrew Jackson in 1814, pioneers settling the Alabama wilderness in 1816, the drafting of the Constitution of Alabama in 1818, wealth and leisure during the antebellum era from 1840 to 1860, the inauguration of Confederate President Jefferson Davis on the capitol steps in 1861, and, finally, prosperity following the development of resources from 1874 to 1930.</p><br>
<p>Both legislative chambers date to the original 1851 construction. Both of them are rectangular in shape and extend upward through the third floor, with a mezzanine gallery on that level. The galleries in both chambers are supported by Corinthian columns. Those in the old Senate Chamber are gilded, while those in the old House of Representatives Chamber are simply painted. The old Senate Chamber is the smaller of the two legislative chambers, with a mezzanine in a circular pattern stretching around all four sides of the room, broken only above lectern platform. The old House Chamber is larger, with a curvilinear mezzanine on three walls that merges into each side wall before reaching the lectern platform wall.</p><br>
<p>The Old Senate Chamber was the site of several events leading to the Civil War. The Alabama Secession Convention met here on January 11, 1861, and voted to withdraw from the Union. Then, the Confederate States of America was organized here via a provisional constitution on February 4, 1861, Jefferson Davis was elected as its first president on February 9, 1861, and finally the permanent Confederate constitution brought into effect on March 11, 1861.</p><br>
<h2>The grounds</h2><br>
<p>The landscape plan for Capitol Hill surrounding the capitol building was originally designed by the firm of Frederick Law Olmsted in 1889. The grounds of Capitol Hill were surrounded by a cast iron fence from the 19th century into the first decades of the 20th. It was later removed and reused to enclose the Old Augusta Cemetery on Wares Ferry Road. The grounds still contain many trees and scrubs from the Olmsted design, in addition to numerous monuments. These statues are protected by the Alabama Memorial Preservation Act.</p><br>
<h3>The main steps</h3><br>
<p>The principal access to the capitol building was originally via a long flight of steps leading to the front portico. These were much narrower than those in place today. They were replaced by new steps fabricated from Georgia marble in 1949. The modern steps are the same width as the portico and are edged with raised marble planters.</p><br>
<p>It was here that the third Selma to Montgomery march ended on March 25, 1965, with 25,000 protesters at the foot of the capitol steps on Dexter Avenue. Prominent protesters included Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, Coretta Scott King, Ralph Bunche, Roy Wilkins, Whitney Young, A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin, John Lewis, James Baldwin, Harry Belafonte, and Joan Baez. A delegation from the protestors attempted to see Governor George Wallace to give him a petition that asked for an end to racial discrimination in Alabama. The governor had sent word that he would see the delegation, but they were denied entry to the capitol grounds twice and told no one would be let through. State police surrounded the capitol and prevented the marchers&#39; delegation entry to the grounds. Martin Luther King Jr. then gave an impassioned speech at the base of the steps:</p><br>
<p>The delegation was later let through into the capitol, but were told that Wallace&#39;s office was closed for the day. The delegation later left, without having been able to give their petition to anyone. It read:</p><br>
<p>These steps remain as they were in 1965, although repairs were made during the 1992 renovation of the building. The steps have continued to be the rallying point for civil demonstrations over the succeeding years. Memorial Selma to Montgomery marches have ended at the steps on several occasions. The most recent, in honor of what would have been King&#39;s 83rd birthday, was held on January 15, 2012. On this occasion the marchers were greeted by Governor Robert J. Bentley.</p><br>
<p>The steps have seen protests by LGBT groups and immigration groups in recent years as well. The annual Vigil for Victims of Hate and Violence, sponsored by Equality Alabama, took place on the capitol steps on February 20, 2011, to heighten awareness of the lack of hate crime legislation to protect LGBT people in the state. Hundreds of protesters converged at the steps on December 17, 2011, to protest the passage of Alabama&#39;s strict new immigration law, Alabama HB 56.</p><br>
<h3>Confederate Memorial Monument</h3><br>
<h3>Avenue of Flags</h3><br>
<p>The Avenue of Flags is another major feature of the Alabama State Capitol grounds. It is a grouping of the flags of the USA states, with a native stone from each state, engraved with its name, set at the base of each flagpole. The flagpoles are arranged in a semi-circle between the Ionic portico of the capitol building&#39;s south wing and Washington Avenue. It was completed during the term of Governor Albert Brewer, being officially dedicated on April 6, 1968.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The areas that are open for tourists are the entry stairhall, the old Governor&#39;s Office, the old State Supreme Court, the old Supreme Court Library, the rotunda, the old House of Representatives, and the old Senate Chamber. Its buildings and grounds are maintained by the Alabama Historical Commission.</p><br>
<p>The Arizona Territorial - Arizona State Capitol in Phoenix, Arizona, United States, was the last home for Arizona&#39;s territorial government until Arizona became a state in 1912. Initially, all three branches of the new state government occupied the four floors of the statehouse. As the state expanded</p><br>
<p>the branches relocated to adjacent buildings and additions. The 1901 portion of the capitol is now maintained as the Arizona Capitol Museum with a focus on the history and culture of Arizona. The Arizona State Library, which occupied most of the 1938 addition until July 2017, re-opened in late 2018 as a part of the Arizona Capitol Museum.</p><br>
<h2>Arizona Capitol Museum</h2><br>
<p>Museum exhibits, events, and programs focus on the evolution of Arizona from Territory to State. The Arizona Takes Shape exhibit provides school-age visitors curriculum-related information for Arizona State History and government studies. The museum has over 20 exhibits featuring contemporary, historical and artifacts from the Arizona state-owned collections. Permanent exhibits include the sinking of USS Arizona, the formal silver service from USS Arizona, a timeline of events pivotal in making Arizona a state, the Governor and Secretary of State&#39;s original offices, the historical senate, and house.</p><br>
<p>Visitors can enter the Historic House Chamber where the people can sit at the desks. There is also a room dedicated to the 140 changes in the over 100 years of statehood. The Governors office on the second floor includes artifacts from several of Arizonas governors as well as a flag used by Teddy Roosevelt&#39;s Rough Riders.</p><br>
<p>One impressive display shows the enormous silver and copper punchbowl service from, as well as a bronze sculpture that was ensconced outside the Admiral&#39;s stateroom and used as a centerpiece at state dinners wherever USS Arizona was docked. Both of these historical artifacts survived the sinking of Arizona because they had been removed from the ship for cleaning prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. The punchbowl service is the only one of its kind and is composed of etched copper panels depicting desert scenes set into a silver bowl ornamented with mermaids, dolphins, waves, and other nautical themes.</p><br>
<p>Of particular interest is the display of a collection of gifts received by Arizona as part of the Merci Train sent by France to the United States following World War II. The French wanted to thank America for sending the Friendship Train: 250 railroad cars full of fuel, oil, and food in 1948 during a time that the European countries were devastated by World War II. Tens of thousands of French citizens donated objects to be sent to the United States and it was decided that because the outpouring of goods was so great, one boxcar would be sent to each state with one being shared between the District of Columbia and the Territory of Hawaii. All of the items were to be loaded in "Forty and Eight"-type boxcars, named after the sign painted on them which stated that 40 men or 8 horses could be loaded inside. Each car was to be adorned with the coats of arms of all of the provinces of France. The capitol building displays work by the noted Arizona artist Lon Megargee. The train car can be found at the McCormick-Stillman Railroad Park in Scottsdale.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was created as part of an effort to demonstrate that the Arizona Territory was ready for statehood. A design contest was won by James Riely Gordon, whose original plan called for the Capitol to be much larger, with a more prominent rotunda and large wings for both houses of the legislature on each side of the current building. Funding deficits meant the project had to be reduced, so the legislative wings were discarded from the plan and a small lead-alloy top substituted for Gordon&#39;s decorative dome.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the Capitol began in 1899 when it broke ground, and it began operation in 1901. The Capitol was built by the Scottish-born Texan contractor Tom Lovell. In 1918 and 1938, expansions were added on the west side of the building, which had the same architecture and increased the total square footage from the original 40,000 to a final 123,000. It was home to the Legislature until 1960, when the current house and senate buildings were constructed, and the Governors Office until 1974, when the executive tower was built. The state at that time had a plan of converting the original Capitol into a museum dedicated to Arizonas history. The original opening of the Arizona Capitol Museum was announced by Governor Bruce Babbitt at his inauguration in 1978 and hosted over 40,000 schoolchildren in that first year in 1979. After a restoration, the building was re-opened as a museum in 1981. In the 1990s, more than $3 million was spent to renovate the Capitol and rooms were restored to their original design. Again, due to budget deficits, construction was stopped on a few rooms on the third floor and they remain incomplete. The Capitol is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>On January 14, 2010, the Arizona State Department of Administration reported that it had sold the surrounding state buildings to private investors: the tower, the two flanking legislative buildings, and other state structures. The old Capitol was not part of this transaction.</p><br>
<p>On the night of June 24, 2022, and into the morning of June 25, police and pro-choice activists clashed outside the building in protest of the Supreme Court ruling in Dobbs v. Jackson Women&#39;s Health Organization. The protesters numbered over 5,000 persons. The Arizona Department of Public Safety deployed tear gas and flash bang grenades against the protesters, forcing them to disperse. Arizona Senate Republicans accused the protestors of attempting to storm the building, with GOP</p><br>
<p>State Senator Kelly Townsend tweeting that the legislators were "being held hostage" and comparing the protest to the 2021 United States Capitol attack. She also called for a "J24 Committee" in reference to the January 6 committee.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building is made largely from materials indigenous to Arizona, including malapai, granite, and the copper dome. The design is optimized for the desert climate of Arizona, with thick masonry walls that insulate the interior, skylights, and round "bullseye" clerestory windows to let heat out of the legislative chambers. The building is topped with a weather vane similar to the Winged Victory of Samothrace, visible through a skylight from within the rotunda.</p><br>
<h2>Capitol Mall renovation proposal</h2><br>
<p>As Arizonas population has grown, the Capitol complex itself has become increasingly crowded. The Senate and House buildings, opened in 1960, have been deteriorating. The Senate, in particular, is prone to constant plumbing problems, and occasionally a broken pipe floods the entire building. The Capitol itself is now used exclusively as a museum, and serves over 70,000 visitors each year, including more than 50,000 school children. In the past complaints had been made that the site was not pleasing aesthetically, and compare the Senate and House buildings as oversized "bunkers" which eclipse the beauty of the Capitol. A task force appointed by the state legislature in 2007 reported that the complex is "barely" adequate to suit the states current needs and "wholly" inadequate to suit the states future needs. As a result, proposals were made in 2008 to renovate or rebuild the Capitol site, to a grander site, as well as a site that will serve the needs of the government more adequately. To date, keeping the integrity of the 1901 building in original condition, including the "cramped" spaces occupied by some of the Senate and the House staff have been the main focus for the Capitol Museum administrator and staff. The buildings original usage is part of the state history.</p><br>
<p>Proposals for relocating some office and meeting space back into the Capitol included the House and Senate buildings undergo either a drastic rebuilding and expansion or a complete demolition and construction of new facilities for the House and Senate. A past Arizona State University study planned a comprehensive redesign for the entire Capitol mall and complex.</p><br>
<p>The Balinese Room was a famous nightclub in Galveston, Texas, United States built on a pier stretching 600 feet  from the Galveston Seawall over the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. For decades a dance hall and illegal casino, the Balinese Room was remodeled and reopened in 2001 without a casino. During the early morning hours of September 13, 2008, the structure was destroyed by Hurricane Ike.</p><br>
<p>Operated by Sicilian barbers-turned-bootleggers Sam and Rosario Maceo, the Balinese Room (also known as Maceos Grotto) was an elite spot in the 1930s and 1940s (Galvestons open era), featuring entertainment by Frank Sinatra, Bob Hope, George Burns, The Marx Brothers and other top acts of the day.</p><br>
<p>Patrons of the private club included Howard Hughes, Sophie Tucker and wealthy oil barons from nearby Houston.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Balinese is featured in pop culture; Rock group ZZ Top wrote and performed a song about the club called, "Balinese".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Maceos took over "Chop Suey", a small restaurant at the intersection of 21st Street and Seawall Boulevard, and in 1929 they opened "Maceos Grotto" at that location. It was one of many entertainment venues that popped up along the Galveston Seawall around that time (along with bathhouses and dance clubs, some of which were illegal casinos). In 1932, the "Grotto" was remodeled into a Chinese restaurant called "Sui Jen" (pronounced Swee Rin), and a 200-foot pier stretching out over the Gulf was added to the building. The pier location, across 21st Street from the Galvez, made the restaurant/club an easy walk for those Galveston visitors who preferred to stay in one of the citys most exclusive hotels.</p><br>
<p>The Oriental-sounding name was changed to the more exotic sounding Balinese Room in 1942, after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the decor was modified accordingly. The pier was also expanded to 600 feet. The Balinese Rooms private back room was equipped with the most modern gaming (gambling) equipment, and the Maceos advertisements invited high rollers to "Come Down and Play on Galveston Island."</p><br>
<p>During this period it also became Balinese Room lore that head bartender Santos Cruz "invented" the Margarita for singer Peggy Lee in 1948. He supposedly named it after the Spanish version of her name, Margarita, and it&#39;s been a hit ever since. However, there is an account from 1936 of Iowa newspaper editor James Graham finding such a cocktail in Tijuana, years before any of the other margarita "creation myths".</p><br>
<p>The clubs illegal gambling made it a hub of mob activity. It was well known that the casino, at the far end of the pier, was operating in violation of the law. But the Maceos had many allies in the local government and on the police force, so charges were never filed. The sheriff of Galveston County at the time, when called before the Texas Legislature to testify about why the club remained open, replied that he wasnt a member of the private club so he couldn&#39;t get in.</p><br>
<p>In 1956, Will Wilson was elected as Texas Attorney General after campaigning to "close down Galveston" and its illegal casinos using the Texas Rangers. The Rangers set up shop in a hotel near the club, and raided the casino often. But their efforts were thwarted by the length of the pier, known as the "Rangers Run". By the time they ran down to the tail end of the long, narrow club, tables, cards and chips had disappeared into secret wall and floor pockets. The band often would strike up the song "The Eyes of Texas" upon their arrival.</p><br>
<p>Later on, the Rangers attempted to disrupt the business through nonstop surveillance – they simply sat in the casino all day, every day. Customers, intimidated by the Rangers&#39; presence, were less frequent and business suffered. The club nevertheless stayed open. The Rangers finally launched an undercover operation. Ranger Clint Peoples managed to pose as a customer and was admitted to the club and witnessed the gambling. His work coordinated with a raid enabled the gambling equipment in the club to be seized. The club finally closed its doors on May 30, 1957.</p><br>
<p>In 1961, Hurricane Carla damaged the structure. Many of the piers that supported the structure had been washed away, and over following years, the building continued to decay.</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s the Balinese Room was purchased and reopened by oil tycoon Johnny Mitchell, who turned the casino into a dinner club and disco. Many celebrities appeared at the Club during these years. After Mitchell died in 1996, the Balinese Room and its pier eventually became the property of the State of Texas. A local attorney, Scott Arnold, took out a 60-year lease on the pier, and in 2001, reopened the Balinese Room for business. In addition to the Balinese Room itself, which was used for live music, parties, and weekend public dining, the pier had a salon, retail shops and a massage therapy room with a glass floor.</p><br>
<p>Much of the original Balinese structure and decor had been either modified or destroyed over the years, but the South Seas interior decor of the large ballroom survived and was restored to match its 1940s appearance. The hallway of the long pier was lined with autographed photos of past performers and other memorabilia.</p><br>
<h3>Destruction</h3><br>
<p>As Hurricane Ike approached Galveston on Friday, September 12, 2008, the storm surge raised the water level to a point where waves were occasionally topping the Galveston Seawall, sending water and debris onto Seawall Boulevard.</p><br>
<p>Later that night and early Saturday morning, Hurricane Ike barreled ashore, with the eye of the storm tracking into Galveston Bay. Although the pier was higher than the seawall, Ike&#39;s storm surge, waves, and wind were more than the 79-year-old structure could handle. After having survived hurricanes Carla, Alicia, and numerous smaller storms, the famous old club was destroyed. Only plywood, rubble, metal and the famed red door were left after the hurricane passed through.</p><br>
<h3>In popular culture</h3><br>
<p>The Balinese Room is celebrated in a 1975 song by the band ZZ Top.</p><br>
<p>The 1989 film Night Game featured the Balinese Room as a filming location.</p><br>
<p>The 1993 film Dazed and Confused played an excerpt of the aforementioned ZZ Top song "Balinese".</p><br>
<p>The Rengstorff House was one of the first houses to be built in Mountain View, California. It was built c. 1867 by Henry Rengstorff, a prominent local businessman who operated a ferry between San Francisco and Mountain View. It is built in the Italianate Victorian architecture style. The house&#39;s three-bay front facade features an entrance pavilion topped by a balustrade and a pediment on the middle bay.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Henry Rengstorff built the house near Rengstorff Landing, an important grain shipping point. The house was built to demonstrate his prosperity, and to raise his six children in comfort, including a room built solely for his four girls, to accommodate their regular appointment with a dressmaker to try on the latest fashions. When Rengstorff died in 1906, his daughter Elise Haag and grandson Perry Askam moved into the house.</p><br>
<p>In 1976 Frederick Woods, and James and Richard Schoenfeld launched their plan to preserve the mansion and make it their private residence at the intersection of Middlefield Road and Independence Street, to realize a dream of living in a grand, fully restored and modernized Victorian mansion. Needing $60,000 to realize the plan, they hatched the plan later known as the infamous Chowchilla kidnapping. When all the children and their bus driver were able to escape, they were arrested and sentenced to life in prison, ending this plan for the house.</p><br>
<p>After the house was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, Mountain View mayor Richard Wilmuth wanted to restore it in place. Construction encroached and in January 1979 a company planning to construct an industrial park on the house&#39;s land suggested it be moved north to Shoreline Park. The land was purchased by the city in 1979 and the house was moved onto Shoreline Park land in January 1980. To make way for the Marine World/Africa USA theme park the house was moved again in 1986, further into Shoreline Park, to its current location. After a major renovation costing about $1 million, funded by the city, the house was opened to the public in April 1991. It has since been used as a museum and to host weddings and miscellaneous events; it is open to the public on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays or Online 24/7 via 3D tour</p><br>
<p>Rock Mary, in Caddo County, Oklahoma, was a prominent landmark on the California Road. It was named in 1849 for Mary Conway, the then 17-year-old niece of James Sevier Conway, the Governor of Arkansas. Mary was the eldest daughter of Dr. John R. Conway, a prominent physician and surveyor, who emigrated to California with his wife and 10 children.</p><br>
<h2>Historical markers</h2><br>
<p>At the base of the rock formation is a plaque with the following inscription:</p><br>
<p>ROCK MARY</p><br>
<p>May 23, 1849</p><br>
<p>This odd and unusual land feature was named on that date by Lieuts. J.E. Simpson and M.P. Harrison when they visited this site, planted a flag on the crest and named the rock for 17 year belle, Mary Conway, an emigrant.</p><br>
<p>Oklahoma Historical Society, 1960</p><br>
<p>A second plaque is located at the crest with the following inscription:</p><br>
<p>THE AMERICAN FLAG</p><br>
<p>ROCK MARY</p><br>
<p>From this point on May 23, 1849 the flag of the United States was unfurled by Lts. J.E. Simpson and M.P. Harrison who gave this rock its name. By this act they established this as a famous landmark relied on by countless thousands of western emigrants.</p><br>
<p>Oklahoma Historical Society, 1960</p><br>
<p>Rock Mary was chosen as a landmark on the southern trail to California, called the California Trail by Captain Marcy. It stood out on the prairie and could be seen from a distance. The formation seen in the picture is low relative to the surrounding land and can not be seen from far away as it is in the breaks of the creek. Marcy picked the hill because of its prominence and just southeast of the foot of the hill was a spring (since gone dry) and a good camp ground with wood available in the nearby breaks.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>The landmark is located on private property where no trespassing is allowed. The Hinton Historical Museum has been granted access management of the property and can allow visitors to enter with advance notice. The museum is located in Hinton, 5 miles east of the Rock.</p><br>
<p>The William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building is a complex of several historic buildings located in the Federal Triangle in Washington, D.C., across 12th Street, NW from the Old Post Office. The complex now houses the headquarters of the Environmental Protection Agency .</p><br>
<p>One component of the complex was originally called the New Post Office, and housed the headquarters of the Post Office Department until that department was replaced by the United States Postal Service in 1971 and which vacated the building. Subsequently, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (BATFE) occupied this building, which Congress renamed as the Ariel Rios Federal Building in 1985. BATFE vacated the building in the early 1990s, and EPA moved in after a renovation.</p><br>
<p>To consolidate its headquarters offices, EPA also took occupancy of two adjacent buildings beginning in the late 1990s: the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) building and the Department of Labor Building, on Constitution Avenue, NW. In 2013, Congress renamed the Ariel Rios Federal Building in honor of former President Bill Clinton, and the General Services Administration extended the designation to the former ICC and Labor buildings. (The new BATFE headquarters building received the name Ariel Rios Federal Building in 2016.)</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In the early 1930s, the area that was to become the Federal Triangle was one of the citys most blighted neighborhoods, known as Murder Bay and as a center of crime and prostitution. The plan for the areas redevelopment was laid out as part of the 1901 McMillan Plan, the first federally funded urban redevelopment plan. Redevelopment of the Federal Triangle began in earnest in the 1930s, during the Great Depression, under the leadership of Treasury Secretary Andrew W. Mellon.</p><br>
<h3>Andrew W. Mellon Auditorium</h3><br>
<p>In recognition of name changes of the complex, the United States General Services Administration designates some historical events which occurred at the Andrew W. Mellon Auditorium as historical events which occurred at the Clinton Building.</p><br>
<h3>New Post Office Building</h3><br>
<p>Construction of the New Post Office Building was completed in 1934. The Post Office headquarters was a central feature of the redevelopment. The neoclassical building was designed by architects William Adams Delano and Chester Holmes Aldrich, who took as their inspiration the Place Vendôme in Paris. The central section of the tri-unit building consists of two huge, back to back, semicircular units with side wings. The semicircle formed by the building&#39;s curve on its eastern façade was to be mirrored by a similarly curved façade built across 12th Street on the site of the Old Post Office Building.</p><br>
<p>Secretary Mellon&#39;s building commission actively sought the demolition of the Old Post Office to fulfill that plan, but preservation efforts—which continued over the course of 50 years—saved the Old Post Office. The second half of the grand plaza was never finished as designed, save for a curve in the northwest corner of the headquarters of the Internal Revenue Service. (The nearby Ronald Reagan Building, completed in 1998, does mirror, to some degree, the semicircle of the west façade of the Clinton Building.)</p><br>
<p>The exterior is decorated with bas relief panels, by Adolph Alexander Weinman.</p><br>
<p>The original design of the headquarters building included a local branch post office, called Benjamin Franklin Station. This branch, with entrances on Pennsylvania Avenue, is extant as of 2018.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, the General Services Administration (GSA) refurbished the former Post Office building and preserved the architectural details of the hallways in the style of the 1920s and 1930s. A seven-story marble spiral staircase is a prominent element of the building&#39;s interior. A chandelier hangs in the center of the staircase and has exposed bulbs to illuminate each floor. It terminates in a dramatic chrome and brass globe.</p><br>
<h3>Department of Labor Building</h3><br>
<p>Arthur Brown, Jr. designed the Labor building between 1928 and 1931, and construction was completed in 1934. The building entrance is at 1301 Constitution Avenue, NW.</p><br>
<p>The Department of Labor was the original occupant of the building. It vacated the building in 1979, when it moved to the Frances Perkins Building. The Customs Service took occupancy in 1979 and remained until the late 1990s. This agency moved to the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center. In 2002 EPA moved in, and the building was designated as the "EPA West" building.</p><br>
<h3>Interstate Commerce Commission Building</h3><br>
<p>Arthur Brown, Jr. designed the ICC Building, completed in 1934, in a style similar to the Labor building. The building entrance is at 1201 Constitution Avenue, NW. The Interstate Commerce Commission occupied the building until 1995. EPA moved in after a renovation.</p><br>
<h2>Building occupants and renaming</h2><br>
<p>The Post Office Department occupied its headquarters building until the early 1970s. The department was reorganized in 1971 as the United States Postal Service, an independent agency. It vacated the building for another location. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (BATFE) was the next occupant, through the early 1990s. Congress renamed the New Post Office Building as the Ariel Rios Federal Building on February 5, 1985, in honor of Ariel Rios, an undercover BATFE special agent, who was killed in the line of duty on December 2, 1982. In the early 1990s, BATFE moved out of the building. It was renovated for EPA, which occupied it next. (BATFE is now in its own building on New York Avenue.)</p><br>
<p>The building also flanks the historic Andrew W. Mellon Auditorium.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1990s, EPA consolidated its headquarters offices in the Federal Triangle, bringing employees from leased space into two adjacent buildings: the ICC building and the Department of Labor Building, on Constitution Avenue, NW. In December 2012, both houses of Congress unanimously voted to rename the Ariel Rios Building as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, after Bill Clinton, the 42nd President. GSA administratively renamed the building for Clinton on May 13, 2013. The structure was formally dedicated at a ceremony on July 17, 2013, at which Clinton spoke and former EPA Administratrator Carol Browner attended.</p><br>
<p>The Rios family approved of renaming a building. A reflecting pool at the new ATF headquarters on New York Avenue NW was named for Rios. GSA extended the Clinton building designation to include the former ICC and Labor buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Murals</h2><br>
<p>The Clinton Federal Building was one of the initial locations that integrated various New Deal artworks that were originally commissioned and displayed in federally constructed buildings by the Treasury Department Section of Fine Arts during the 1930s and 1940s. Six of the 25 mural commissions awarded have been criticized by visitors and employees as to stereotyping American Indians and displaying inappropriate images.</p><br>
<p>GSA addressed the controversy:</p><br>
<p>The USA Post Office headquarters murals embody many admirable qualities of American art and culture in the 1930s: a range of visual styles, inventive approaches to subject matter, commitment to bringing creativity and artistic beauty to public spaces, and devotion to the development of American art as a part of national identity. At the same time, engrained cultural attitudes of the 1930s are inevitably present, including stereotypes about women, Native Americans, African Americans, and rural Americans. From Ward Lockwood and Karl Frees depictions of Native Americans and African Americans as subservient to white colonists, to William Palmer and Frank Mechaus emphasis on the aggression of Native Americans and the passive victimhood of women, to Doris Lee&#39;s romanticized views of farm life during the Depression, the murals perpetuate outmoded views of their era. Today, the presence of the murals in this building offers a rare opportunity to experience a full cycle of New Deal artwork in its original context, and serves as a valuable reminder of how American society has changed over time".</p><br>
<p>Controversy over New Deal murals was also prevalent during their installation and afterward, if for different reasons. Some viewers objected to the nudity in some of the murals and to revolutionary sentiments they believed were implicit in some works. There was extended public debate.</p><br>
<h2>Renovation</h2><br>
<p>In 1993, the building was renovated. In 1998, the limestone facade was renovated. In 2007, the south courtyard was renovated.</p><br>
<p>Desert Star Theater is a dinner theater establishment in Murray, Utah. It started out as a small theater called the Gem, which showed silent movies with a piano for music. It was later closed down and demolished, but rebuilt and expanded into the Iris Theater by owner Tony Duvall. After his retirement, the Iris changed hands several times before being renamed the Vista.</p><br>
<p>The National Register of Historic Places, notes Iris Theater, Apartments and Commercial Building, built in 1930, is significant for its role in the urbanization of Murray City. With its combination of entertainment, retail, and residential space, the building represents an elaborate example of the multi-use commercial block common during the early twentieth-century development of the city&#39;s commercial business district. The building was owned by the Duvall family who managed the theater while living in the apartments above the storefronts. The Iris building is also significant as the only commercial building in Murray built in the Art Deco style. Though not a particularly ornate example of the style, the building makes a distinctive contribution to the State Street frontage of the Murray Downtown Historic District. The building is in good condition and is a contributing historic resource of the city.</p><br>
<p>The Iris was considered state-of-the-art at the time. The theater showed both blockbusters (e.g.</p><br>
<p>"Gone with the Wind"), and more obscure fare (e.g. some Thursday nights were reserved for Swedish films shown especially for Swedish immigrants brought to Murray by the smelters). The theater had a stage where local groups could mount theatrical productions. The Iris Theater was a</p><br>
<p>community place. Murray firemen sometimes held conventions there. Many of Murray&#39;s youths,</p><br>
<p>including the Duvall children, worked in the theater. During the Great Depression, Tony Duvall would</p><br>
<p>sometimes let children see a movie in exchange for scrap metal, or sometimes simply for free. Tony</p><br>
<p>Duvall, with partner Joe Lawrence, later built the Murray Theater at 4961 South State. In the 1940s, the Iris would close during the summer while movies were shown in the larger (and cooler) Murray Theater.</p><br>
<p>The theater first became Desert Star when Mike and Alyce Todd attempted to produce a play near This Is The Place Heritage Park. This play was the first to exhibit the common traits found today in Desert Star plays. After the summer ended, they attempted to find an indoor location for their plays. They considered the closed down Vista, and eventually took it and renamed it the Desert Star Playhouse.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, after several successful plays, the city of Murray said that the building had to be brought up to code or torn down. The owner wanted to go with the latter, but the Todds decided to buy the theater and renovate. Today, the playhouse features Dinner and Cabaret theaters, as well as performing two shows in different theaters.</p><br>
<p>Desert Star is known for parody plays, doing comedic spoofs of classic movies and stories. They are also known for political jokes, and their themes tend to revolve around Utah. Each show also ends with a musical olio, in which the performers dress up in various costumes and do musical numbers.</p><br>
<p>Reynoldstown is a historic district and intown neighborhood on the near east side of Atlanta, Georgia, located two miles from downtown.</p><br>
<h2>History and demographics</h2><br>
<p>Reynoldstown is a community that was originally settled after the American Civil War by freed slaves who were employed by the railroad. Madison and Sarah Reynolds were among the first ex-slaves to move into the area, and it is believed that the neighborhood was named after them. Reynoldstown was annexed by the city of Atlanta in 1909 and celebrates its historic tie to freed slave roots and artistic expressions to empower residents with its annual. The neighborhood continued to thrive and prosper until the 1950s when the railroad industry began to decline. Reynoldstown began gentrifying in the 1990s, altering the demographic makeup of the neighborhood where today it is closer to a mix of 65% white and 35% African-American population composition. The neighborhood was listed as a Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Reynoldstown is bordered on the west by Pearl Street, across which is Cabbagetown and, south of Memorial Drive, Grant Park; on the east by Moreland Avenue and Edgewood; on the south by I-20, across which is the Ormewood Park neighborhood and an industrial area which is officially part of Grant Park; and on the north by the railroad line and Inman Park.</p><br>
<p>Reynoldstown lies in NPU N. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district. Local landmarks include the Colgate Mattress Factory, headquarters, and the former Atlanta & West Point Railroad depot, which now houses a restaurant.</p><br>
<h3>Parks and trails</h3><br>
<p>The BeltLine bisects Reynoldstown north-south. It functions as a paved walking and biking trail, and possibly for transit use (either light rail or streetcar). Just north of Reynoldstown in Inman Park adjacent the intersection of Krog St and Irwin St, part of The Beltline, is paved from here to Piedmont Park through Inman Park, Old Fourth Ward, Poncey-Highland and Virginia-Highland. The CSX railroad Hulsey Yard forms the northern border of the neighborhood, a current issue is how to connect the southeast BeltLine to the Eastside Trail portion of the BeltLine across the yard. The southern wall of the yard on Wylie Street in Reynoldstown and Cabbagetown is a prominent location for street art in Atlanta. Lang-Carson Park (3.24 acre) also lies within Reynoldstown.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Memorial Drive is the major thoroughfare passing through the south end of Reynoldstown, with mostly light industrial properties, many of which are now repurposed for residential, retail and entertainment use. Reynoldstown contains rail right-of-way that is planned for the Beltline. Reynoldstown is served by the Inman Park/Reynoldstown MARTA station.</p><br>
<h2>Reynoldstown Civic Improvement League</h2><br>
<p>Reynoldstown Civic Improvement League’s (RCIL) is the neighborhood association that represents Reynoldstown in NPU-N.</p><br>
<p>The General Electric Building, also known as 570 Lexington Avenue, is a skyscraper at the southwestern corner of Lexington Avenue and 51st Street in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The building, designed by Cross & Cross and completed in 1931, was known as the RCA Victor Building during its construction. The General Electric Building is sometimes known by its address to avoid confusion with 30 Rockefeller Plaza, which was once known as the GE Building.</p><br>
<p>570 Lexington Avenue contains a 50-floor, 640 ft stylized Gothic octagonal brick tower, with elaborate Art Deco decorations of lightning bolts showing the power of electricity. The tower is set back from the round-cornered base with elaborate masonry and architectural figural sculpture. The building was designed to blend with the low Byzantine dome of the adjacent St. Bartholomews Episcopal Church on Park Avenue, with the same brick coloring and architectural terracotta decoration. The crown of the building, an example of Gothic tracery, is intended to represent electricity and radio waves. On the corner above the buildings main entrance is a clock with the cursive GE logo and a pair of disembodied silver arms holding bolts of electricity.</p><br>
<p>Plans for the building were announced in 1929, and it was completed two years later. The project was originally commissioned for RCA, then a subsidiary of General Electric (GE). RCA moved to 30 Rockefeller Plaza midway through construction, and 570 Lexington Avenue was conveyed to GE as part of an agreement in which RCA and GE split their properties. GE had its headquarters at 570 Lexington Avenue between 1933 and 1974, and retained ownership until 1993, when the building was donated to Columbia University. The building was extensively renovated by Ernest de Castro of the WCA Design Group in the 1990s. It was designated a New York City landmark in 1985 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>Site</h2><br>
<p>The General Electric Building occupies the southwestern corner of Lexington Avenue and 51st Street in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It sits on the northeastern portion of a city block bounded by Park Avenue to the west, 50th Street to the south, Lexington Avenue to the east, and 51st Street to the north. St. Bartholomews Episcopal Church is directly to the west on the same city block, and another office building is to the south. The General Electric Building is also near the Waldorf Astoria New York to the south, 569 Lexington Avenue and the Beverly Hotel to the east, and 345 Park Avenue to the north. Entrances to the New York City Subways Lexington Avenue/51st Street station, served by the, are adjacent to the north side of the building.</p><br>
<p>The lots making up the General Electric Buildings site were purchased by Frederick and Maximilian Schaefer starting in 1867, and were developed as the Schaefer Brewery in 1878. The Park Avenue railroad tracks, running in an open cut less than a block west of the site, were placed underground as part of the construction of Grand Central Terminal in the early 20th century. The opening of Grand Central Terminal in 1913 spurred development in the area bounded by Lexington Avenue, Madison Avenue, 51st Street, and 42nd Street. St. Bartholomews Church bought the Schaefer site in 1914. After St. Bartholomews built its chapter house and garden on the blocks southwestern corner, the Schaefer site was the only one on the block that was not developed.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The General Electric Building was designed by John Walter Cross of Cross & Cross in the Art Deco style with Gothic Revival ornamentation. This contrasted with the firm&#39;s earlier designs, which tended to be in the Gothic Revival, Georgian Revival, or Renaissance Revival styles.</p><br>
<p>The building was designed to harmonize with neighboring structures, particularly St. Bartholomew&#39;s Episcopal Church, as well as the since-demolished building of Cathedral High School to the south. There are 46 office floors in total, as well as four mechanical floors, although the 48th and 49th floors also once contained executive dining rooms.</p><br>
<h3>Form</h3><br>
<p>The buildings lowest stories contain elaborate masonry and architectural figural sculpture, with a round corner facing Lexington Avenue and 51st Street. Above a series of gradual setbacks, the building rises into an octagonal brick tower similar to Cross & Crosss earlier design for 20 Exchange Place. It is a stylized Gothic tower, with elaborate Art Deco decorations of lightning bolts showing the power of electricity. According to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, the base and tower form "one of the most expressive skyscrapers of its era".</p><br>
<p>The lowest twelve stories fill the entire lot area. Between the 13th and 25th stories, the building contains shallow setbacks on each elevation, The buildings tower rises 25 stories above these setbacks. The corners of the tower are chamfered to form an eight-sided floor plan, except on the buildings northeast corner below the 35th floor, which is not chamfered.</p><br>
<h3>Facade</h3><br>
<p>The facade was designed to blend with the low Byzantine dome of St. Bartholomew&#39;s Church and shares the same brick color, with terracotta decorations chosen to coordinate. Brick in orange, tawny, and buff colors was used throughout the facade. The bricks, laid out randomly in American bond, create from a distance the impression of a rich bronze color.</p><br>
<p>The window sills, corbels, spandrels, and other elements on the facade are made of terracotta in similar shades. The terracotta details include reliefs that depict lightning. The lowest section of the ground-story facade is made of reddish granite, and some of the upper-story trimmings are made of reddish marble. The terracotta on the upper stories was sprayed with fourteen-carat gold. The detail of the facade wraps around to its rear elevations as well.</p><br>
<p>The facade contains few flat surfaces. The design is emphasized by rounded vertical piers, which separate the facade into bays, and recessed spandrels, which separate the windows between each floor. The piers rise above and between the openings of the first floor. The spandrels are mostly similar in design. On the building&#39;s primary elevations, the upper section of a typical spandrel contains a large chevron made of fluted bars, while the lower section contains two half-size chevrons with smaller fluting. Running vertically along the center of each spandrel is a lozenge-shaped bolt with aluminized finishing. The bolt probably represents the radio industry, though architectural historian Anthony W. Robins writes that the bolt has also been compared to sound waves on a RCA Victrola.</p><br>
<h4>First floor</h4><br>
<p>At ground level, the facade contains display windows with storefronts; the large display windows are two bays wide, while the small display windows are one bay wide. The Lexington Avenue elevation has four large display windows, two on either side of the main entrance. The 51st Street elevation has four large and two small display windows, a two-bay-wide loading dock, and a one-bay-wide freight entrance. The display windows and loading dock are each surrounded by a red marble frame containing reeded jambs. The pediments above the main entrance and freight entrance are more elaborate.</p><br>
<p>The main entrance is on Lexington Avenue and contains three single-leaf metal doors. Instead of doorknobs, each door contains a push-plate with a zigzag design. The Lexington Avenue entrance is topped by a transom window with interlocking triangles and curves.</p><br>
<p>The building&#39;s northeast corner, facing Lexington Avenue and 51st Street contains a more ornate design than the rest of the facade, as it was intended to lead to a bank space on the first floor. At ground level, there is a non-structural buttress made of marble, with elaborate pediments above. The buttress consists of two bays, one facing each street, and is supported by a pier at the corner. On the pier is a clock with the cursive GE logo and a pair of disembodied silver arms holding bolts of electricity. The bays of the corner buttress are topped by tripartite triangular marble pediments, which feature a clenched fist holding an electric bolt, topped by a series of round brick semicircles.</p><br>
<p>Between the 2nd and 12th floors, the building&#39;s northeast corner is curved.</p><br>
<h4>Upper stories</h4><br>
<p>The tower contains four bays on each of the major elevations facing north, south, west, and east, as well as one bay in each chamfer. The spandrels between the 45th and 48th floors consist of raised circles with entirely aluminized finishing. Each of the 50 ft figures depicts a deity with "forked lightning" above them. The building&#39;s crown contains Gothic tracery touched with gold. The tracery is intended to represent electricity and radio waves. The "rays" of the deities can light up at night.</p><br>
<h3>Features</h3><br>
<p>The building has 428,000 ft2 of floor space according to The New York Times, although the Skyscraper Center gives the gross floor area as 458,295 ft2. The lowest floors typically contain 17,000 ft2 each, while the tower floors contain 3,000 ft2. The interior structure contains a myriad of columns supporting each floor.</p><br>
<p>The lobby is designed in the Art Deco style and consists of a small vestibule leading to a larger elevator lobby.</p><br>
<h4>Lobby</h4><br>
<p>There is a vestibule inside the Lexington Avenue entrance, which contains a polished granite floor. Similar to the exterior, the walls of the vestibule consist of a red marble surface over a red-granite base. The side walls have decorative radiator grilles containing tall rectangles with angular tops. Atop the walls of the vestibule is a frieze consisting of a wave mosaic between beige marble bands; it is interrupted by two slightly projecting stones that serve as reflectors. Metal sconces, shaped like torches, are placed on the walls below the frieze. The vestibule and the building&#39;s lobby are separated by a marble wall. A metal revolving door flanked by two smaller doors leads to the lobby, while a transom window and decorative metal grille are above these doors.</p><br>
<p>John Cross had intended the design of the lobby to give off an impression of "vibrant energy". The walls are made of convex pink marble panels with darker red veins, placed over a base made of white-veined black marble. The walls are topped by wave friezes and torch-shaped sconces, similar to those in the vestibule, although the lobby&#39;s western wall does not have a wave frieze. Cross likened the illumination of the pink-marble walls to broadcast stations, while he described the triangular cut-outs on the ceiling as symbolizing "the directness and penetration of radio itself".</p><br>
<p>The lobby&#39;s western wall contains an opening that is closed-off by a metal Art Deco screen; this opening is topped by a decorative clock with a metal frame and a red-marble face. On the northern wall, a wide opening leads to a staircase to the basement as well as an adjacent commercial space. A similar opening on the south wall led to a waiting room and shopping arcade, but was sealed in 1995, when the security desk was installed in front of that opening. The elevator openings, five each on the northern and southern walls, contain painted metal doors with digital floor indicators above them. There are also openings leading from the lobby to various secondary spaces, as well as decorative grilles on the walls. The decorative details include a metal Art Deco mailbox on the south wall of the lobby.</p><br>
<p>Extending past the western wall of the lobby is a transverse corridor, which contains a similar ceiling design and terrazzo floors. This transverse corridor leads to a freight entrance with marble walls and decorative grilles on the freight doors. On the western side of the ground floor, south of the lobby, is an area with plain terrazzo floors and metal sconces; this space has a stairway to the basement.</p><br>
<h4>Other floors</h4><br>
<p>The ten elevators from the ground-floor lobby descend to the basement lobby, which contains a simpler design compared with the main lobby. The terrazzo floor is checkered, the walls are made of pink marble slabs, and the elevators contain their original floor indicators. Adjacent to the basement lobby is an auditorium with a plain sloped plaster ceiling and white walls, as well as a small stage. The Bartholomew Building Corporation arranged with the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, which at the time operated the 51st Street subway station, to construct an entrance to the stations downtown platform in the General Electric Buildings basement. The basement entrance replaced a sidewalk staircase along 51st Street at Lexington Avenue. The passageway was made of marble with aluminum storefronts. A new street entrance opened in 1965, and the passageway was sealed off with a marble-clad partition.</p><br>
<p>The elevator cabs are inlaid with wood. The elevators also include white-metal railings and corner lights that date from the original design. The ceilings of the elevator cabs are made of silver leaf. During some point in the 20th century, the silver-leaf ceilings of the elevators were hidden from view, although they were restored at some point before 2003.</p><br>
<p>The upper floors were plainer in design compared with the public areas. As built, each story in the building&#39;s base contained elevator lobbies with terrazzo floors, as well as marble walls with wave mosaics. Smaller elevator lobbies existed in the floors of the tower, although many of these lobbies were removed during subsequent renovations, giving offices direct access to the elevators. Raymond Hood and J. André Fouilhoux designed a "technologically advanced" conference room after GE moved into the building, which combined neon and mercury vapor lights to provide consistent indirect illumination. The conference room no longer exists.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Planning</h3><br>
<p>In September 1929, Tishman Realty & Construction acquired plots at the southwestern corner of Lexington Avenue and 51st Street, passing it to the Bartholomew Building Corporation through intermediary Stanhope Estates Inc. The large corner lot was purchased from the Norko Realty Company and Julian Tishman & Sons, as well as two smaller lots on 51st Street from the Nichols Holding Company. The next month, the Bartholomew Building Corporation bought the land from Tishman.</p><br>
<p>RCA was expected to be one of the major tenants, although the Bartholomew Building Corporation originally refused to confirm this fact. RCA had purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929, becoming known as RCA Victor.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Cross & Cross were hired for the project and filed official blueprints. The New York City Department of Buildings issued a new-building permit for the project on December 17, 1929. A construction contract was immediately let to the A. L. Hartridge Company. The demolition of the existing rowhouses on the site was completed on April 15, 1930. The northern wall of Cathedral High School was left vulnerable as a result of the demolition, so it was reinforced with cinder concrete.Simultaneously with the development of the RCA Victor Building, John D. Rockefeller Jr. was planning a large building complex (later Rockefeller Center) three blocks west of the new skyscraper. In December 1929, the Metropolitan Opera had declined an offer to develop a new opera house at Rockefellers site. Raymond Hood, one of the architects involved in the construction of Rockefeller Center, suggested negotiating with RCA and its subsidiaries to build a mass media entertainment complex there. RCAs founder and GE&#39;s chairman, Owen D. Young, was amenable to the proposal. At the time, RCA was seeking more independence from the operations of GE, and three months after David Sarnoff became president of RCA in January 1930, the two companies reached an agreement to separate their operations. As part of that agreement, RCA gave some of its stock and the then-under-construction RCA Victor Building to GE, and the RCA Victor Building became known as the General Electric Building.</p><br>
<p>Work on the General Electric Building commenced on May 3, 1930. The contract with the steel supplier, the McClintic-Marshall Company, specified a tight construction schedule, which the buildings construction appeared to have closely followed. While the facades decorative elements were originally planned to be made of limestone, this was swapped with terracotta, and limestone was only used between the 34th and 35th floors. The aluminum spandrels planned for the upper floors were also replaced with terracotta finished in aluminum. Initial plans called for a more ornate corner entrance with red-and-black marble, aluminum plant motifs, and inlaid enamel. Construction of floor arches and the steel frame continued through mid-1930, during which RCA continued to negotiate a move to 30 Rockefeller Plaza, which was then under construction. The Bartholomew Building Corporation conveyed the building&#39;s leasehold to RCA on January 13, 1931, and property title passed to GE ten days afterward. Construction was completed at the end of 1931.</p><br>
<h3>Use</h3><br>
<h4>1930s to 1950s</h4><br>
<p>570 Lexington Avenue had opened to tenants by April 24, 1931, when RCA Victor moved to the space. RCA had rented ten floors in January 1931, but later modified the lease to occupy only three floors. Another long-term lessee was Childs Restaurants, who signed a 21-year lease for the ground-level retail space in July 1931. Other large companies took space at the building in its first year, including Seversky Aircraft, the White Sewing Machine Company, the National Civic Federation, and the national headquarters of the Girl Scouts of the USA. By late 1932, RCA and GE finalized an agreement in which RCA would move to Rockefeller Center and GE would take the Lexington Avenue building. RCA moved its offices out of 570 Lexington Avenue in June 1933 with the opening of 30 Rockefeller Plaza.</p><br>
<p>In July and August 1933, GE moved its headquarters to the building. With this move, along with the opening of the adjacent Lexington Avenue station on the Independent Subway System&#39;s Queens Boulevard Line (now the ) the president of the Lexington Avenue Civic Association said that the "transformation" of the surrounding stretch of Lexington Avenue had been completed. Architects Pruitt & Brown filed plans in January 1935 to convert the top two floors into a clubhouse for the Elfun Society, a group of GE executives. By that year, 75% of space in the building was occupied, despite the economic downturn caused by the Great Depression. That July, the dining rooms on the 48th and 49th floors were heavily damaged in a fire, the highest ever fought by the New York City Fire Department at the time. Later in the 1930s, the Citizen Savings Bank opened a bank branch in the building. Other large tenants in the 1940s and 1950s included attorneys Reed, Crane De Give, as well as the Manhattan Savings Bank.</p><br>
<h4>1960s to 1980s</h4><br>
<p>An "automatic cafeteria" without a kitchen opened in the General Electric Building in 1961. The buildings lights were replaced three years later, and GE moved some of its offices to two other Midtown buildings. By the early 1970s, GE considered constructing a new headquarters in Fairfield, Connecticut. The new headquarters opened in 1974, and the Canadian offices of GE moved to the space that the executive offices had vacated at 570 Lexington Avenue. In subsequent years, much of 570 Lexington Avenues space subsequently became vacant.</p><br>
<p>The General Electric Buildings original granite storefronts were replaced with aluminum storefronts sometime before 1975. The buildings crown was not lit up between 1982 and 1988, when the buildings renovation was nearly complete. Further confusing the situation, 30 Rockefeller Plazas former name had been the RCA Building, but 570 Lexington Avenue had also been known by that name during its construction.</p><br>
<h4>1990s to present</h4><br>
<p>GE donated 570 Lexington Avenue to Columbia University in 1993 to gain a $40 million tax deduction. The university formed a joint venture with Bernard H. Mendiks Mendik Company and Quantum Realty Partners, and planned a renovation to attract tenants. Between 1993 and 1995, the building was extensively renovated by Ernest de Castro of the WCA Design Group. Several interior systems were refurbished, including the lobby and elevators. The renovation also added some elements, such as chandeliers, that had been planned but not installed in the original design. The exterior was also cleaned and refurbished, and several "miscellaneous modernizations" were removed. The adjacent 51st Street subway entrance was also rebuilt with an Art Deco design. For his companys preservation of the lobby, Mendik received the Preservation Achievement Award in 1996.</p><br>
<p>By the end of 1995, Mendik and Quantum Realty were leasing out space within 570 Lexington Avenue. At the time, the buildings yearly asking prices per square foot were described as being barely market rate, with 30 $/ft2 being asked on the lower floors, and 40 $/ft2 for the upper floors. Additionally, 570 Lexington Avenue was not located on such a prestigious street, and its design precluded modifications such as dropped ceilings, raised floors, or column removals. Vornado Realty Trust bought Mendiks company in 1997 and increased its ownership stake in 570 Lexington Avenue to a half stake in 1998.</p><br>
<p>The Feil Organization bought the building in February 2001 for $120 million. By the 2010s, the buildings tenants included Cornell University, Cornwall Capital, Asset.tv, Air India, and the Roosevelt Institute. Additionally, in 2018, Urbanspace opened a three-story food hall in the buildings base.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<h3>Reception</h3><br>
<p>At the time of its completion, the General Electric Building was characterized as being in a Gothic style, as the term "Art Deco" had not become popularized yet. By the late 20th century, the General Electric Building was being described as Art Deco. In the 1978 Macmillian Encyclopedia of Architects, Christopher Gray described the building as "explicitly Art Deco".</p><br>
<p>Reviews of the design were mostly positive. While Chappell wrote that the General Electric Building was "a little too consciously picturesque", he admired the buildings rounded corner. Lewis Pilcher described the building in the 1931 Americana Annual as "superbly conceived with grace and suavity." Arnold Lehman wrote in 1971 that the building was "noteworthy for its highly original decorative treatment", saying that "the sculpted figures in the crown go as unnoticed as the beautifully detailed clock" on the buildings northeastern corner. According to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), the building is a "major example" of Art Deco architecture and its style is "both symbolic and expressive of the buildings function". Architecture writer Carter B. Horsley stated that the buildings design was an "unofficial campanile to the church" immediately behind.</p><br>
<p>Later reviews continued to praise the design. Robert A. M. Stern wrote in his 1987 book New York 1930, "Not only was its base a sophisticated piece of urban infill, but its tower was a jewel in New York&#39;s skyscraper crown."</p><br>
<h3>Landmark designations</h3><br>
<p>The buildings exterior was designated a New York City landmark by the LPC in 1985. Speaking about the landmark designations of the General Electric Building and the neighboring Waldorf Astoria and St. Bartholomews Church, Frank Mahan of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill said the designations "preserved a unique urban composition with a spiraling upward thrust".</p><br>
<p>The Wadsworth-Longfellow House is a historic house and museum in Portland, Maine, United States. It is located at 489 Congress Street and is operated by the Maine Historical Society. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and administratively added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The house is open daily to public from May through October . An admission fee is charged.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house has both historical and literary importance, as it is both the oldest standing structure on the Portland peninsula and the childhood home of American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882).</p><br>
<p>American Revolutionary War General Peleg Wadsworth built the house between 1785 and 1786, the first wholly brick dwelling in Portland. Wadsworth raised ten children in the two-story structure with a pitched roof before retiring to the family farm in Hiram, Maine, in 1807. His daughter Zilpah and her husband Stephen Longfellow IV were married in the house. Their son, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, was born nearby at the home of an aunt, Stephens sister, on February 27, 1807. The home was a three-story Federal architecture-style home at the corner of Fore and Hancock Streets. Young Longfellow did not move with his parents to the Wadsworth-Longfellow House until he was eight months old, but spent the next 35 years there. The Longfellows added todays third story in 1815.</p><br>
<p>On September 10, 2001, the eve of the September 11 attacks, two of the soon-to-be hijackers, Mohamed Atta and Abdulaziz al-Omari, visited the Wadsworth-Longfellow House in the afternoon.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>Anne Longfellow Pierce (1810–1901) was the last family member to live in the house. She deliberately kept the house much as it was in Peleg Wadsworth&#39;s time, but is perhaps best remembered for growing oranges in the window. Her will stipulated that the house, lot, and many furnishings be given to the Maine Historical Society upon her death.</p><br>
<p>Pierce died in 1901 and the Maine Historical Society opened the home to the public within a year. At the time, only one other American author&#39;s home was owned by an organization committed to its preservation, specifically the John Greenleaf Whittier Homestead in Haverhill, Massachusetts.</p><br>
<h2>Longfellow Garden</h2><br>
<p>A Children&#39;s Gate designed by Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow, nephew of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, was installed in the 1930s. The gate was removed in the 1960s and restored in 2012.</p><br>
<p>The Codman House  is a historic house set on a 16 acre estate at 36 Codman Road, Lincoln, Massachusetts. Thanks to a gift by Dorothy Codman, it has been owned by Historic New England since 1969 and is open to the public June 1&ndash;October 15 on the second and fourth Saturdays of the month. An admission fee is charged.</p><br>
<p>The main house was originally Georgian in style and was built in approximately 1735 by Chambers Russell, the de facto founder of Lincoln, Massachusetts. It was enlarged in the 1790s to its current three-story Federal style by John Codman, brother-in-law of Chambers Russell III and executor of his estate. This was perhaps with some involvement of noted American architect Charles Bulfinch. The interior is extensively furnished with portraits, memorabilia, and art works collected in Europe. Various rooms preserve the decorative schemes of every era, including those of noted interior designer Ogden Codman, Jr.</p><br>
<p>The former carriage house, built c. 1870 to a design by Snell & Gregerson, is also located on the property. Until the 1980s, it was original to its use as a stable and an early auto garage and contained many artifacts of both. A few of those artifacts continue to be on display in the carriage house including an early gas pump and a large machine powered lathe.</p><br>
<p>The grounds have been farmed almost continuously since 1735 and now also include an Italian garden, circa 1899, with perennial beds, statuary, and a reflecting pool filled with waterlilies, as well as an English cottage garden, circa 1930.</p><br>
<p>The Codman Estate was added to the National Register of Historic Places as "The Grange" in 1974.</p><br>
<p>The Gropius House is a historic house museum owned by Historic New England at 68 Baker Bridge Road in Lincoln, Massachusetts, United States. It was the family residence of Modernist architect Walter Gropius, his wife Ise Gropius , and their daughter Ati Gropius. The house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2000 for its association with Walter Gropius, as he was an influential teacher and leader of Modernist architecture. The house includes a collection of Bauhaus-related materials unparalleled outside Germany.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As the first director of the Bauhaus, Gropius was concerned with combining modern technologies with consumer needs, while placing equal emphasis on architectural integrity and decorative arts.</p><br>
<p>Gropius and his family came to the United States after a three-year stay in London, where they had moved to avoid the Nazi regime. Gropius came to Massachusetts to accept a teaching position at Harvard Universitys Graduate School of Design. Fellow architect and prominent Bostonian Henry Shepley convinced philanthropist Helen Storrow to provide land and fund the design and construction of a home for Gropius. Gropius designed the home in 1937; local builder Casper J. Jenney built it in 1938. Gropius used his new home as a showcase for his Harvard students as well as an example of modernist landscape architecture in America. He chose the area because of its proximity to Concord Academy which his daughter Ati was slated to attend. It remained Gropiuss home from 1938 until his death in 1969.</p><br>
<p>Marcel Breuer, a fellow architect and friend of the Gropius family, came to the United States shortly after the Gropiuses, also to become part of the Harvard design faculty. Helen Storrow provided a neighboring plot of land to Breuer where he could showcase his design philosophies. Gropius and Breuer assisted one another in the construction of their homes, completing their dwellings in 1938 and 1939, respectively. The Gropius House continues to have Breuer furniture on display. The house also contains works by Eero Saarinen, Joan Miró, and Herbert Bayer that they gave as gifts to Walter Gropius.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and design</h2><br>
<h3>Design philosophy</h3><br>
<p>In 1931 Gropius was asked to write an article describing the ideal livable small home for Architectural Forum. Gropius outlined the most important aspects of the home&#39;s design, sounding like a true description of the Lincoln dwelling: "The dwelling house should no longer resemble something like a fortress, like a monument of walls with medieval thickness and an expensive front intended for showy representation. Instead it is to be of light construction, full of bright daylight and sunshine, alterable, time-saving, economical and useful in the last degree to its occupants whose life functions it is intended to serve."</p><br>
<p>Gropius went on to describe an ideal layout of such a house, almost literally outlining the Gropius House composition: "The ground plan... is a geometrical projection of its spacial idea – the organizing plan for moving within a house. The elevation, facade, is the result of that plan and not the starting point... Hence, no artificial symmetry, but a free functional arrangement of the succession of rooms, short, time-saving passages of communication, moving space for children, clear separation between the living, the sleeping, and the housekeeping parts of the house, and finally, proper utilization of the ground and especially the sunny aspect. The bedrooms need morning sun (facing east) the living rooms should have southern to western light, and the north side is left to storerooms, kitchens, staircases and bathrooms."</p><br>
<h3>The house</h3><br>
<p>Set amid fields, forests, and farmhouses, the Gropius House mixes traditional materials of New England architecture (wood, brick, and fieldstone) with industrial materials such as glass block, acoustic plaster, welded steel, and chrome banisters. The structure consists of a traditional New England post and beam wooden frame sheathed with white-painted tongue-and-groove vertical siding. Traditional clapboards are used in the interior foyer, but are applied vertically to create the illusion of height. The clapboards also performed a practical function as a gallery. Because the works displayed in the Gropius House changed frequently, the wood served as an easy surface to nail into, patch, repaint, and start over again. The home contains a combined living and dining room, a kitchen, office, sewing room, three bedrooms, and four bathrooms. All bathrooms were positioned in the less-prominent northwest corner of the house and used the same plumbing stack for maximum efficiency. One of the most notable differences between the Gropius House and adjacent homes is its flat roof. While in much of Europe and even in certain parts of the United States flat roofs were becoming quite common, in Lincoln and surrounding areas pitched roofs with gables were the norm. Gropius fashioned his flat roof with a slight tilt to the center where water could drain off to a dry well on the property.</p><br>
<p>At the time of the building of the Gropius House, Walter and Ises adopted daughter Ati was 12 years old. Gropius took care in making sure Ati was happy and comfortable and allowed her a great deal of input in the design of her bedroom. Ati chose the warm color palette and much of her furniture, including a desk Gropius had designed while at the Bauhaus in 1922. Atis room is the largest of the three bedrooms, with a private entrance including a wrought-iron spiral staircase. Though Gropius could not give her the sand floor and glass ceiling she requested, he did give her the private roof deck so she could sleep under the stars.</p><br>
<h3>The landscape</h3><br>
<p>In keeping with Bauhaus philosophy, every aspect of the house and surrounding landscape was planned for maximum efficiency and simplicity. Gropius carefully sited the house to complement its New England habitat, saying in a 1933 article "The House of New Lines" that "of similar importance to the harmonic formulation of the building structure itself is the correct integration of the home into the landscape, into the garden..." The house itself is on a grassy rise surrounded by stone retaining walls amidst wetlands and a 90-tree apple orchard, the latter which the Gropiuses allowed to grow naturally other than some mowing during the growing season. Gropius wanted the outdoor space around the home to be equally "civilized" and created a lawn extending twenty feet around the entire house, with a perennial garden expanding to the south by the porch. Although the house sits on a rather flat plot of land, by keeping the woodlands well maintained, the Gropiuses retained broad views to the south, east, and west. The screened porch was placed so as to divide the land around the house into multiple zones, comparable to rooms inside a house. The house was conceived as part of an organic landscape, where Gropius utilized indoor-outdoor spaces to accentuate relationships between the structure and site.</p><br>
<p>Before the home&#39;s design was complete, Walter Gropius was hard at work creating the ideal landscape. He selected mature trees from the neighboring forest and helped transplant them to his future yard. Ise was the predominant landscaper in the family: she and Walter selected Scotch pine, white pine, elm, oak, and American beech trees to complement their surroundings. The Gropiuses also added "rescued" boulders and wooden trellises adorned with pink climbing roses and Concord grapevines to flatter the New England landscape. Bittersweet vines and trumpet vines also connected the home to nature. Ise spent many hours each week planting, weeding, and trimming. She also filled and maintained more than a dozen bird feeders and bird houses on the property and claimed to have known more than ninety birds personally. After a trip to Japan in the 1950s, Ise removed the perennials and covered the ground in a layer of gray gravel, where she planted azaleas, candytuft, cotoneaster, and one large red-leafed Japanese maple tree.</p><br>
<h2>Criticism</h2><br>
<p>Conservative neighbor James Loud did not approve of the Gropius House. Loud complained about being "surrounded by chicken coops," referring to the Gropius House disparagingly, as he felt its modernist design clashed with his own home&#39;s Colonial Revival style.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>In 1974—five years after Walters death—Ise donated the property to the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities (now Historic New England), though she lived there for the rest of her life. In 1984, a year after Ises death, the home became a museum. It is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Munroe Tavern, located at 1332 Massachusetts Avenue, Lexington, Massachusetts, is an American Revolutionary War site that played a prominent role in the Battle of Lexington and Concord. It is now preserved and operated as a museum by the Lexington Historical Society, with exhibits highlighting the role and perspective of the British soldiers during the outbreak of the war. The house is open for guided tours on weekends starting in April and daily from Memorial Day weekend until the end of October.</p><br>
<p>The Munroe family line in America was begun by William Munroe (1625–1719), who was transported (along with his brothers) to New England in 1651 following his capture at the Battle of Worcester. The earliest part of the Tavern was constructed in 1735 on land then owned by David Comee. Later the proprietor rights were given to others. Another William Munroe (1742–1827), the great-grandson of the original William, purchased the house in 1770, and in October 1774 was granted a taverner&#39;s license from the town, shortly before the outbreak of hostilities in April 1775.</p><br>
<p>On April 18, 1775, one day before the outbreak of the battle, Munroe Tavern was a meeting spot for colonials, owned by William Munroe, orderly sergeant of Captain John Parker&#39;s militia company, and proprietor of the tavern until 1827. At 6:30 p.m. that evening, Solomon Brown of Lexington, who had gone to the market in Boston, returned and reported to Munroe that he had passed a patrol of British soldiers.</p><br>
<p>A large force of British troops arrived at Lexington before dawn the next morning, and shots were exchanged on the town common, beginning the Battles of Lexington and Concord. That afternoon the tavern served as the headquarters for Col. Hugh, Earl Percy, and his one thousand reinforcements. The British occupied the tavern for one and one-half hours, during which time the dining room was converted into a field hospital for the wounded, while exhausted British troops consumed liberal quantities of food and drink, compelling John Raymond, a lame private in Parker&#39;s company of minutemen who had fought against the soldiers earlier, to serve as their bartender. When Raymond attempted to escape through the door, the drunken soldiers shot and killed him.</p><br>
<p>President George Washington dined at the Munroe Tavern when he visited the Lexington battlefield in 1789. An upstairs room now contains the table and chair at which he sat and documents relating to his trip.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th century, a Munroe descendant who owned the house rented out part of it to artist Edwin Graves Champney (1842–1899). The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.</p><br>
<p>The Lexington Historical Society now employs the Tavern for the Museum of the British Redcoats, providing a view of April 19, 1775 from the perspective of the King&#39;s troops. The building underwent renovation and restoration work in 2010–2011.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Munroe Tavern appears in the 2012 video game Assassin&#39;s Creed III.</p><br>
<p>The Hancock–Clarke House is a historic house in Lexington, Massachusetts, which is now a National Historic Landmark. Built in 1738, the house is notable as one of two surviving houses associated with statesman and Founding Father John Hancock, who lived here for several years as a child. It is the only residence associated with him that is open to the public. It played a prominent role in the Battle of Lexington and Concord as both Hancock and Samuel Adams, leaders of the colonials, were staying in the house before the battle. The House is operated as a museum by the Lexington Historical Society. It is open weekends starting in mid-April and daily from May 30&ndash;October 31. An admission fee is charged.</p><br>
<h2>Hancock and Clarke history</h2><br>
<p>The Reverend John Hancock, grandfather of the American revolutionary leader of the same name, purchased this site in 1699. In 1738 he built this two-story timber-frame house. Rev. Hancock&#39;s son, Thomas, a wealthy Boston merchant, is said to have financed the construction. The front or main portion of the house consists of the -story structure with central chimney, a short center hall, two rooms on each of the two floors, and an attic. The small rear ell, stories high with gambrel roof, contains a kitchen and tiny study downstairs and two low-studded chambers upstairs. As confirmed by tree-ring dating (dendrochronology), both portions of the house were built from trees felled in the same year, refuting a commonly held belief that the ell was built in 1698. Succeeding Hancock as minister in 1752, the Reverend Jonas Clarke, who reared 12 children in the parsonage, was an eloquent supporter of the colonial cause.</p><br>
<p>This house is one of two surviving residences associated with John Hancock, famous American patriot, President of the Continental Congress, first signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, and the first Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. It became his boyhood home in 1744 when, upon the death of his father at Quincy, the seven-year-old boy came to live at this house with his grandfather. In 1750 John joined his childless uncle, Thomas Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant who adopted him.</p><br>
<p>On the evening of April 18, 1775, John Hancock and Samuel Adams, having attended the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in Concord and wary of returning to Boston, were guests of Rev. Clarke. Fearing that they might be captured by the British, Dr. Joseph Warren of Boston dispatched William Dawes and Paul Revere to Lexington with news of the advancing British troops. Arriving separately, they stopped to warn Hancock and Adams around midnight, then set off for Concord. Hancock and Adams made their way to Burlington to avoid capture.</p><br>
<h2>Later history</h2><br>
<p>The house remained in the Clarke family until 1844, maintained by Rev. Clarke&#39;s daughters. It thereafter changed hands several times before being acquired by the Lexington Historical Society. The building was threatened with demolition in 1896, at which time the society purchased it and moved it across the street. In 1974, after purchasing the original site, the society moved it back to its original location. The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>This house contains furnishings and portraits owned by the Hancock and Clarke families and an exhibit area that includes relics of April 19, 1775.</p><br>
<p>Buckman Tavern is a historic American Revolutionary War site associated with the revolution&#39;s very first battle, the 1775 Battle of Lexington and Concord. It is located on the Battle Green in Lexington, Massachusetts and operated as a museum by the Lexington Historical Society.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The tavern was built in about 1709–1710 by Benjamin Muzzey (1657–1735), and with license granted in 1693 was the first public house in Lexington. Muzzey ran it for years, then his son John, and then at the time of the battle it was run by John&#39;s granddaughter and her husband John Buckman, a member of the Lexington Training Band. In those years the tavern was a favorite gathering place for militiamen on days when they trained on the Lexington Green. (Lexington, unlike other local communities, did not establish a minuteman company, instead maintaining a "training band" for local defense).</p><br>
<h3>Battles of Lexington and Concord</h3><br>
<p>The Battle of Lexington and Concord took form before dawn on April 19, 1775. Having received word that the regular army had left Boston in force to seize and destroy military supplies in Concord, several dozen militiamen gathered on the town common, and then eventually went to the tavern to await the arrival of the British troops. Definite word reached them just before sunrise, and Captain Parker&#39;s company of militia left the tavern to assemble in two ranks on the common. Following the arrival of the army, a single shot was fired; by whom, it is still unknown. With this shot, the American Revolutionary War began.</p><br>
<p>Although best known as the headquarters of the militia, Buckman Tavern is also noteworthy as perhaps the busiest of Lexington&#39;s 18th-century taverns. It housed the first village store in Lexington, and later, in 1813, the first town post office.</p><br>
<h2>Historic site</h2><br>
<p>The tavern&#39;s interior appears today very much as it did in 1775 and one can see the restored 18th-century taproom with large fireplace and central chimney. Among the many items on display is the old front door, with its bullet hole possibly made by a British musket ball during the battle, and a portrait of John Buckman.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961.</p><br>
<p>Woodbridge is a historic neighborhood of primarily Victorian homes located in Detroit, Michigan. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980, with later boundary increases in 1997 and 2008. In addition to its historic value, Woodbridge is also notable for being an intact neighborhood of turn-of-the-century homes within walking or biking distance of Detroit&#39;s Downtown, Midtown, New Center, and Corktown neighborhoods.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The district as recognized by the National Register of Historic Places was originally bounded by Trumbull Street, Calumet Street, Gibson Street, Grand River Avenue, Rosa Parks Boulevard, West Warren Avenue, Wabash Street, Railroad Tracks, and the Edsel Ford Freeway. The boundaries of the District were increased twice: in 1997, 4304-14 Trumbull Street (private residences) and 3800 Grand River Avenue were added to the district, and in 2008 the southeast corner of Trumbull Street and Warren Avenue (Saint Dominic Roman Catholic Church) was added.</p><br>
<p>Most structures in the district are located on north–south streets. The irregularly-shaped district includes structure at 3800 Grand River Avenue (between Avery Street and Commonwealth Street), and structures within the following boundaries:</p><br>
<p>on the east side of Wabash street, on both sides of Vermont Street, and on both sides of Rosa Parks Boulevard from the Edsel Ford Freeway to Warren Avenue</p><br>
<p>on the west side of Rosa Parks Boulevard from Warren Avenue to Grand River Avenue</p><br>
<p>on both sides of Hecla Street, Avery Street, and Commonwealth Street from the Edsel Ford Freeway to Grand River Avenue</p><br>
<p>on the west side of Trumbull Street from the Edsel Ford Freeway to Canfield Street</p><br>
<p>on the east side of Trumbull Street at the south corner of Warren Avenue</p><br>
<p>on both sides of Trumbull Street from Canfield Street to Grand River Avenue; and</p><br>
<p>on both sides of Lincoln Street and the west side of Gibson Street from Calumet Street to Grand River Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Woodbridge is an intact neighborhood of architecturally significant buildings and has had an important effect on the history of Detroit. The neighborhood, dating to the Victorian era, has largely escaped the redevelopment efforts that have obliterated many of Detroit&#39;s other historic areas. It is named for William Woodbridge, governor of Michigan in 1840–1841, who owned a large farm on which much of the neighborhood was subsequently built.</p><br>
<p>Most of the structures within the neighborhood were built after 1870, beginning with modest cottages. Larger structures were built later, including the James Scripps house (now demolished and turned into a city park), built in 1879. The Eighth Precinct Police Station, built in 1901, was architecturally designed to blend in with the lavish upper-class homes in the neighborhood. As the automotive industry boomed, there was an increased demand for housing in the city of Detroit, and new buildings and apartment houses were constructed behind and between the existing homes in the neighborhood. During World War II, owners rented rooms and divided homes into apartments to house defense industry workers.</p><br>
<p>After the war, residents began leaving the Woodbridge neighborhood for the suburbs. New residents to Woodbridge were less affluent. In the 1960s, the city cleared areas adjacent to the neighborhood to support revitalization. The residents of Woodbridge organized a Citizen&#39;s District Council to preserve the neighborhood, and successfully managed to stabilize and preserve many of the remaining homes. Recent activity has shifted perception of Woodbridge from that of an up-and-coming neighborhood to a hotbed of urban revitalization, with the few properties that come up for sale typically subject to bidding wars.</p><br>
<h2>Notable structures</h2><br>
<p>Notable structures within the Woodbridge neighborhood include:</p><br>
<p>The Eighth Precinct Police Station is located at 4150 Grand River Avenue, and was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1973 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974. In 2013, the building was converted to lofts, as part of the ongoing revitalization of Woodbridge.</p><br>
<p>The Northwood–Hunter House (also known as the William Northwood House) is located at 3985 Trumbull Avenue. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1974.</p><br>
<p>Presently known as Spirit of Hope church, the Trinity Episcopal Church is located at 1519 Martin Luther King Boulevard. The church was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1979 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>The Trumbullplex is a renowned housing collective and showspace that has become an institution and hotbed of creative anarchism, which was created in 1993 when members of the collective established a nonprofit corporation and purchased the property, two Victorian houses on either side of a single-story art space.</p><br>
<p>The Trumbull Avenue Presbyterian Church is located at 1435 Brainard at the intersection of Brainard and Trumbull near Scripps Park. It was listed on the State of Michigan Registry of Historic Sites on June 6, 1977., Boy Scouts of America</p><br>
<p>The Detroit Area Council—later becoming the Great Lakes Council for the Boy Scouts of America that serves the Detroit metropolitan area and covers all of Wayne, Oakland and Macomb counties—chose to build its headquarters in Woodbridge. The facility holds both council and district staff, as well as the National Toyota Scout Shop. Dedicated in September 2003, the service center was largely paid for by the donations of the Dauches; Council Treasurer Irving Rose and his wife, Audrey; and Council Vice President Richard Marsh. The building cost nearly $6 million, including new furnishings, landscaping, and demolition of the old building</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Detroit Public Schools operates public schools.</p><br>
<p>Frederick Douglass Academy for Young Men is located in Woodbridge.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Kenneth Cockrel Jr., former Detroit City Council member and president, as well as former mayor of Detroit</p><br>
<p>Tony Hawk, professional skateboarder, video game subject, and real estate entrepreneur who maintains a second home in the neighborhood</p><br>
<p>Rose Mary Robinson, Michigan State Representative, former member of the Detroit Charter Revision Commission (in 2009) and former Wayne County Commissioner (one of the first women ever elected, in 1970)</p><br>
<p>Sixto Rodriguez ("Rodriguez"), folk musician and subject of Academy Award-winning movie Searching for Sugar Man</p><br>
<p>Gary Schwartz, Academy Award–nominated filmmaker, animator, artist and educator</p><br>
<p>Previous residents included:</p><br>
<p>George Gough Booth, publisher of the privately held Evening News Association, co-founder of Booth Newspapers, co-founder of the Cranbrook Educational Community, major benefactor of The Detroit Institute of Arts, and son-in-law of James E. Scripps</p><br>
<p>Ty Cobb, Detroit Tigers outfielder and Major League Baseball hall-of-famer</p><br>
<p>Ken and Ann Mikolowski, Cass Corridor artists and cofounders of The Alternative Press</p><br>
<p>James E. Scripps, founder of The Evening News (now The Detroit News) and early benefactor of the Detroit Museum of Art (now The Detroit Institute of Arts), to which he gave one of the first major accessions of early paintings for any American museum. Scripps is the namesake for Scripps Park, a public park in the southern part of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>David Stott, early Detroit millionaire, "Detroit&#39;s Flour King," commemorated in the David Stott Building</p><br>
<p>William Woodbridge, second Governor of Michigan and United States Senator</p><br>
<p>Hermits Rest is a structure built in 1914 at the western end of Hermit Road at the south rim of the Grand Canyon in Arizona, United States. The Hermit Trail, a hiking trail that extends to the Colorado River, begins about ¼ mile beyond the shuttle bus stop at Hermits Rest. Hermits Rest also represents the western terminus of the Rim Trail. The location was named for Louis Boucher. Around 1891, Boucher – a Canadian-born prospector – staked claims below present-day Hermits Rest. With help, Boucher carved the aforementioned trail into the canyon, and for years lived alone at nearby Dripping Springs. The main structure currently standing at Hermits Rest was designed by architect Mary Colter. Hermits Rest is the westernmost point on the canyon&#39;s south rim that is accessible by paved road. It was built as a rest area for tourists on coaches operated by the Fred Harvey Company on the way to the now-vanished Hermit Camp. The building was designed to appear to be a natural stone formation, closely tied to the land. Colter selected furnishings that are included in the National Historic Landmark designation.</p><br>
<p>Hermits Rest is one of four Mary Jane Colter Buildings that, as a set, were added to the National Register of Historic Places and declared to be a National Historic Landmark in 1987. All were designed by Colter and were built for the Fred Harvey Company, which operated restaurants and hotels under contract with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, parent of the Grand Canyon Railway.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Hermits Rest stands a few feet from the rim of the Grand Canyon, partly buried in an earth mound. The exposed portions of the structure are designed to look like a natural rock formation, apart from the prominent rubblestone chimney. The structure is approached by a path that passes (and originally ran through) a stone arch decorated with a broken bell that Colter salvaged from a Spanish mission in New Mexico. A small porch supported by peeled log posts stands to one side of the outside observation area that overlooks the canyon rim. The low porch roof extends into the interior, which opens up to a double-height space. Opposite the entry, the south wall houses a semi-circular alcove with a fireplace and a raised floor. A snack bar opens on the west side of the space, and the "rug room," where native crafts were sold, is on the east side with its own fireplace. The interior furnishings throughout were chosen by Colter and are part of the historic designation. The overall impression imparted by Colters design is one of antiquity. Colter, when kidded by AT&SF executives about the dark, antique-looking interior, retorted "you cant imagine what it cost to make it look this old."</p><br>
<h2>Historic designation</h2><br>
<p>Hermits Rest is a component of the multi-site Mary Jane Colter Buildings National Historic Landmark. It was incorporated into the National Historic Landmark group on May 28, 1987.</p><br>
<p>Palmer Park is an urban park at 201 E. 111th Street on the far South Side of Chicago, Illinois, USA.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Palmer Park was created in 1904 by the South Park Commission. Under the guidance of superintendent J. Frank Foster, the commission opened ten new neighborhood parks, including Palmer Park, in an effort to create breathing space and recreational areas in the citys crowded tenement districts. These parks were built by Olmsted Brothers landscape architects and D.H. Burnham and Co. architects. Palmer was responsible for reclaiming the acres of swampland north of the citys business district, which were developed into the Lake Shore Drive area. He built the original baseball field for the Cubs&#39; predecessor, the Chicago White Stockings, and built the Palmer House Hotel.</p><br>
<p>In 1934, the city&#39;s 22 independent park commissions were consolidated into a new unified system, and Palmer Park became park of the Chicago Park District. Park district art director James McBurney painted three murals for Palmer Park as a Works Progress Administration project with money from the federal government. The three are: "Native Americans," "Explorers," and "Dutch settlers." Other noteworthy McBurney murals are found at the Wentworth School, Tilden High School, and Woodlawn National Bank.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>The park, located just south of Gwendolyn Brooks College Preparatory Academy is open daily from dawn to dusk, with free admission. Facilities at the park include baseball fields, an indoor gym, meeting rooms, an outdoor swimming pool, and tennis courts.</p><br>
<p>The Mendocino Woodlands State Park is a group camping facility located at 39350 Little Lake Road, Mendocino County, California, 7 mi inland from the town of Mendocino. It was built as a Recreational Demonstration Area by the Civilian Conservation Corps. Mendocino Woodlands consists of approximately 700 acre of land along the Little North Fork of the Big River and is surrounded to the north, east, and west by the 50,000 acre Jackson Demonstration State Forest. To the south, the park abuts the Big River State Park. It was declared a National Historic Landmark on September 25, 1997.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mendocino Woodlands was one of forty-six campgrounds (including Camp David) created by the Works Progress Administration and the Civilian Conservation Corps in the 1930s. Its rustic wood-and-stone buildings, built by the WPA are surrounded by second-growth redwood forest. Like the other campgrounds, Mendocino Woodlands was originally planned as a site for youth summer camps in which the participants would be introduced to the wonders of nature. However, Mendocino Woodlands is the only one of the campgrounds that has been continuously used for public camping.</p><br>
<p>As originally formed, the campsite occupied a property of 5,425 acre. However, when the campsite was conveyed to the California State Park system by Senate Bill 1063 in 1976, the size of the property was reduced to approximately 700 acre, with the remaining area left in the control of the California Department of Forestry, now Cal Fire. In 1997, the Mendocino Woodlands Recreation Demonstration Area was designated as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Mendocino Woodlands is a forest of coast redwoods, sprinkled with willow, alder, tanoak, and madrone trees. It is home to mountain lions (Puma concolor), Northern-spotted owls (Strix occidentalis caurina), and Cooper&#39;s hawks (Accipiter cooperii). Navarro river that runs through the park is used by salmon, river otters, and beavers.</p><br>
<p>Additionally, a wide variety of mushroom species grow alongside the redwoods, which are especially abundant during the rainy season. These include lobster mushroom (Hypomyces lactifluorium), red coral (Ramoria araiospora), and velvet-footed pax (Tapinella atritomentosa). Pictured on the left is a fungus which can be found on hardwoods such as tanoak.</p><br>
<h2>Management</h2><br>
<p>The Mendocino Woodlands State Park is managed by Mendocino Woodlands Camp Association, a nonprofit corporation that has operated and maintained the facilities at the park since 1948.</p><br>
<p>The Lucin Cutoff is a 102 mi railroad line in Utah, United States that runs from Ogden to its namesake in Lucin. The most prominent feature of the cutoff was a 12 mi railroad trestle crossing the Great Salt Lake, which was in use from 1904 until the late 1950s, when it was replaced by an earthen causeway.</p><br>
<p>The cutoff was originally built by the Southern Pacific Railroad as a means of shortening the First transcontinental railroad. Today the cutoff is owned and operated by the Union Pacific Railroad as a significant part of the Lakeside Subdivision, which runs from Ogden to Wells, Nevada, and is one of the many subdivisions of the Overland Route. Due to the obstruction of water flow caused by the Lucin Cutoff, the Great Salt Lake appears to be different colors in aerial photographs; water north of the Cutoff appears red or brown, while water south of the Cutoff is more green.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>1900s–1950s</h3><br>
<p>Built by the Southern Pacific Company (SP) between February 1902 and March 1904, the cutoff bypassed the original Central Pacific Railroad route through Promontory Summit where the golden spike was driven in 1869. By going west across the lake from Ogden to Lucin, it cut 44 mi off the original route and also significantly decreased curvature and grades. Built under the direction of SP chief engineer William Hood, a team of 3,000 SP workers worked seven days a week to build the line. When the line opened, it included short causeways extending from the western shore of the lake and the edge of Promontory Point, connected with a nearly 12 mi wooden trestle. The cutoff also included a causeway which spanned Bear River Bay from the eastern shore of the lake to Promontory Point. This section included a 600 ft trestle to allow Bear River water to flow into the lake. By 1908, five passenger trains and seven freight trains were using the Lucin Cutoff in each direction daily.</p><br>
<p>The cutoff received its first modification a few months after opening. Fill was placed underneath the tracks to reduce their sagging. This was completed six months later.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, a project began to replace the trestle&#39;s deck and construct additional bracing. It was completed by 1927.</p><br>
<p>In 1929, the eastern causeway was widened. Additionally, the Midlake station was closed after being effectively replaced by the bridge station. However, its buildings were kept in place to serve as living quarters for the signal operators.</p><br>
<p>In 1932, two more piles were added to each bay next to the trestles, and 2,038 bracing piles were added.</p><br>
<p>In 1941, the telegraph building at the Midlake station was reopened as part of World War II related military operations.</p><br>
<p>In 1942, the original track between Lucin and Corinne, Utah was removed, including the remaining spikes on Promontory Point, and the scrap metal was donated to the war effort.</p><br>
<p>In late 1944, the Cutoff was the site of a train wreck in which 48 people were killed. A westbound mail express train ran into the back of a slower moving passenger train in thick fog.</p><br>
<p>In 1945, the Midlake station was razed and demolished as part of an upgrade to centralized traffic control.</p><br>
<h3>1950s–present</h3><br>
<p>By the 1940s it had become apparent that the old trestle was functionally obsolete, a choke point due to only having one track, and deteriorated to the point where much more money was spent on it than deemed acceptable. Because of this, construction on earthen causeway to bypass the structure began in 1955. It would be a parallel dirt and rock causeway that connected to the existing ones. It was built under contract by Morrison-Knudsen of Boise, Idaho. The new construction was opened to use by freight by late 1959, at which point the old trestle was restricted and improvements ceased.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1970s, the trestle was abandoned after it had become too deteriorated for continued use.</p><br>
<p>Throughout 1983 and 1984, the causeway was raised to prevent flood damage.</p><br>
<p>The causeway prevented lake water from flowing as freely as the open trestle had, and to help mitigate effects, two culverts were included in the original causeway construction. The culverts allowed for boat traffic and a limited amount of water to flow from the lakes southern arm (where surrounding freshwater rivers emptied into the lake) into the lakes northern arm. In the early 1980s, Utah experienced heavy flooding, and much of the extra water along the Wasatch Front flowed into the Great Salt Lake. This resulted in the lake experiencing historic high water levels and flooding nearby landowners. To aid the two culverts in channeling water to the northern arm, the State of Utah constructed a 300 ft bridge at the western end of the causeway. The state breached the causeway under the new bridge on August 1, 1984, allowing pent-up water from the southern arm to flow into the northern arm.</p><br>
<p>The continual slow sinking of the causeway has on occasion required more material to raise its height above the lake level. In 1986, the causeway was almost entirely rebuilt after flooding caused its filling to sink into the water.</p><br>
<p>During the flooding of the 1980s, this buildup included placing 1,430 surplus railcars along the northern edge of the causeway and filling them with rock to act as gabions (this feature is known as the "Boxcar Seawall.")</p><br>
<p>In 1993, the railroad sold salvage rights to the trestle and Cannon Structures, Inc., through its Trestlewood division, and began to dismantle it. Work on demolishing the trestle itself was completed by 2000. Trestlewood continues to market and sell the salvaged trestle wood.</p><br>
<p>In March 2011, Union Pacific Railroad (UP), the successor to the Southern Pacific,-requested permission to close the two 1950s-era culverts because of damage related to age and a sinking of the causeway into the lake bed; the two culverts were closed in 2012 and 2013. To mitigate the effects, the railroad was required to build a bridge and breach the causeway under that bridge. Construction of a 180 ft bridge was completed in fall 2016, although the railroad agreed to delay opening the breach for a few months, due to environmental and water level concerns. The causeway was breached beneath the 180-foot bridge on December 1, 2016. Since the opening of the causeway the level of the water in the arms of the lake has begun to equalize. As of April 30, 2017, the level of the lake in the northern arm is within a foot of the southern arm.</p><br>
<p>Due to the Southwestern North American megadrought, the amount of fresh water flowing into the southern arm of the lake had dropped significantly enough that, during the summer of 2022, a 4 ft berm was constructed in the breach beneath the 2016 bridge. This berm slows the flow of saltier water from the northern arm of the lake into the southern arm, as the increased salinity was beginning to have effects on the ecology of the southern part of the lake. Even though the lakes elevation in the southern part remained slightly higher than the northern part, the saltier water in the northern arm (which is denser and heavier) was able to push along the bottom of the breach into the southern arm of the lake. The berm was raised higher in 2023, but then lowered in 2024 as the level changed. As of 2024, it is the policy of the Office of the Great Salt Lake Commissioner to raise the berm anytime the southern arms level falls to 4,190 ft or lower.</p><br>
<p>The Denver Civic Center is a civic center area that includes two parks surrounded by government and cultural buildings and spaces. Civic Center is located in central Denver, Colorado, on the south side of Downtown Denver. Much of the area is a historic district which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 . A somewhat smaller area was designated a USA National Historic Landmark in 2012 as one of the nations finest examples of the City Beautiful movement of civic design. Denver Civic Center lies partially within the north end of an official Denver neighborhood also named Civic Center. It includes the Colorado State Capitol building, in the west end of Denvers official Capitol Hill neighborhood, and it includes a few buildings in the south end of Denver&#39;s Central Business District.</p><br>
<p>The Civic Center area is known as the center of the civic life in the city, with numerous institutions of arts, government, and culture as well as festivals, parades, and protests throughout the year.</p><br>
<h2>Parks</h2><br>
<p>Civic Center Park is part of the City and County of Denver park system, located at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway, perhaps the best-known and most important streets in Denver. The park is bordered by Bannock Street on the west, Broadway on the east, Colfax Avenue on the north, and 14th Avenue on the south. The park is home to a fountain, several statues, and formal gardens, and includes a Greek amphitheater, a war memorial, and the Voorhies Memorial Seal Pond. It is well known for its symmetrical Neoclassical design. Lincoln Park, immediately east of Civic Center Park, is operated by the State of Colorado. It holds a replica of the Liberty Bell and several memorials.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Civic Center was an idea that originated with former Denver mayor Robert W. Speer. In 1904, Speer proposed a series of civic improvements based on the City Beautiful Ideas shown to him at the 1893 World Columbian Exposition in Chicago.</p><br>
<p>Speer hired Charles Mulford Robinson among others to develop plans for the area. Robinson proposed extending 16th Street to the Colorado State Capitol and to group other municipal buildings around a central park area. Such a plan was expensive however. Voter approval was necessary to acquire the funds, but the measure was defeated in a 1906 election.</p><br>
<p>Undaunted, Speer gathered business leaders who brought in new ideas for the Civic Center including the creation of an east-west axial between the Colorado State Capitol, and swinging the north and south borders of the park into the city grid system.</p><br>
<p>These plans were stalled when in 1912, Speer was replaced as mayor. The new mayor brought in Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. who was developing plans for Denver&#39;s mountain parks. His ideas included an informal grove of trees on the eastern edge of the park, and a lighted concert area.</p><br>
<p>When Speer was reelected in 1916, he went against Olmsted&#39;s designs. Speer instead hired Chicago planner and architect Edward H. Bennett, a protégé of Daniel Burnham. Bennett combined the ideas of all of the previous plans, adding the Greek amphitheater, the Colonnade, the seal pond, and the realignment of Colfax Avenue and 14th Ave., around the park. The park officially opened in 1919. The City and County Building was finished in 1932.</p><br>
<h2>Institutions and development</h2><br>
<p>Civic Center has long been the government, arts, history, and learning nexus of both the state of Colorado and the Denver Metropolitan Area.</p><br>
<p>Among the institutions in the Civic Center are Denver Art Museum and the Denver Central Library along the parks south side, the Colorado State Capitol and the City and County Building of Denver along the east and west axis of the park, the Wellington E. Webb Municipal Office Building on the parks north side, and the History Colorado Center and the Colorado State Judicial Building to the southeast of the park. The Denver Mint lies immediately west of the Civic Center Park across the street from the City and County Building.</p><br>
<p>The area has seen a new civic development, including the Denver Newspaper Agency (northeast of the park), the home of The Denver Post. Voters in 2004 approved a new Denver Justice Center, two blocks away from Civic Center Park. This project was completed in 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Events</h2><br>
<p>Civic Center is known throughout the state as the rendezvous for the largest and most important cultural and civic events. Being at the center of the state and local government institutions, Civic Center has become the place for political statement for various groups and individuals representing a variety of causes. In 1990 and 1991, the Civic Center was the location of the CART Grand Prix of Denver.</p><br>
<p>It was Civic Center where the public held a vigil for the victims of Columbine High School massacre, and 9/11. Former presidential candidate and Denver native John Kerry made a 2004 campaign stop at Civic Center, and 2008 Democratic nominee Barack Obama gave a speech there on October 26, 2008 to an estimated 100,000 supporters.</p><br>
<p>On October 11, 2019, a School strike for climate protest was held in Civic Center Park with Greta Thunberg.</p><br>
<p>Civic Center is also the location for many annual events. These include:</p><br>
<p>January - The City and County Building has a Christmas lights display up until the National Western Stock Show ends in mid January.</p><br>
<p>March – Civic Center is at the end of one of the longest St. Patrick&#39;s Day parades in the nation.</p><br>
<p>April - Flyhi 420 Festival an annual pro-cannabis rally/ cannabis culture gathering is held in Civic Center every year on April 20, otherwise known as 420.</p><br>
<p>May - Denver has a large Cinco de Mayo festival, held at Civic Center.</p><br>
<p>June - Civic Center is host to the People&#39;s Fair, a bohemian festival with various music, art, political booths, and other happenings; PrideFest, the annual gay pride festival is held at Civic Center, which is also the endpoint of the parade.</p><br>
<p>Summer - There are various theatre and music events held throughout the summer at the Greek amphitheater.</p><br>
<p>Summer - Each Wednesday night, the Denver Cruiser Ride stops at the Greek amphitheater, which riders refer to as the "Circle of Death."</p><br>
<p>September - A Taste of Colorado is a food and music festival held during Labor Day weekend at the park.</p><br>
<p>October - The park is the end point for a Columbus Day parade that often brings protests from American Indian groups.</p><br>
<p>December - The Parade of Lights ends at the City and County Building which has holiday lights from the beginning of the parade until the National Western Stock Show.</p><br>
<p>The Pillsbury A-Mill is a former flour mill located on the east bank of the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was the world&#39;s largest flour mill for 40 years. Completed in 1881, it was owned by the Pillsbury Company and operated two of the most powerful direct-drive waterwheels ever built, each capable of generating 1,200 horsepower .</p><br>
<p>In 1901 one of the turbines was replaced with a 2,500 horsepower one. Both the mill and its headrace tunnel are contributing resources to the St. Anthony Falls Historic District, which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The mill is also independently on the NRHP. The mill was named a National Historic Landmark in 1966 and has since been converted into the A-Mill Artist Lofts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1879, after five years of secret planning, Charles Alfred Pillsbury announced to the public that he would build the largest and most advanced flour mill the world had ever seen. He had traveled to mills all over the world, searching for the best technique for milling flour on a large scale. Despite the convention of the time, Pillsbury decided that he wanted his new mill to be designed by an architect in order to make the building visually appealing. Architect LeRoy S. Buffington, with the loose advice of several engineers, carried out the design. Construction started in 1880 and was finished in 1881 under a contractor named George McMullen. The mill was built to put out 5,000 barrels a day at a time when a 500-barrel mill was considered large. Eventually the capacity increased to 17,500 barrels a day. However, for some years the mill was not operated at full capacity.</p><br>
<p>When it was still in use, the seven floors and the basement of the mill all had specific purposes. The basement held a transformer vault, water inlets, and an electrical room. On the first floor there was a small floor-mounted sifter, a larger ceiling-hung sifter, and a pressure tank. On the second floor there were conveyor belts and a staff lunchroom. The third floor contained more belts and bins and the fourth floor held a dust collector, centrifugal machine, gyration shifter, grinder, scale, and a packing bin. The fifth floor held a sifter, separator, and a centrifugal machine. The sixth floor held flour bins and the seventh floor was an electrical room.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, production in the mill ceased and the mill lay empty. The building was then acquired by local developer Shafer Richardson. In 2006 they launched plans to convert and preserve the A-Mill complex as the rebranded East Bank Mills, a loft-style apartment complex containing 759 to 1,095 housing units. However, this redevelopment plan fell through due to financial matters.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, the National Trust for Historic Preservation included the mill on its annual list of 11 Most Endangered Places.</p><br>
<p>In 2013, Twin Cities-based developer Dominium gained approval for a $100 million renovation plan to transform the A-Mill into 251 affordable live/work artist lofts. The exterior of the mill was conserved in order to preserve the historical architecture of the building. However, major changes were made to the interior of the mill and the courtyard behind it. The overall project, which included other buildings within the complex, cost a total $175 million.</p><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 and is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and engineering</h2><br>
<p>On the outside, the Pillsbury A-Mill is a rectangular structure measuring 175 feet (53 m) by 115 feet (35 m). The foundations are of Platteville limestone. The exterior wall thickness varies from 8-0" (2.4 m) thick at the basement to 2-0" (0.6 m) thick at the top of the building. The outside walls are of load-bearing stone with heavy timber framing on the interior (the timber was added after the completion of the building). There are six chimneys on the flat, gravel roof of the building.</p><br>
<p>Due to vibrations of milling machines and poor design, the mill was fortified in 1905. Certain sections were rebuilt in the process. To this day, the walls bow inward 22 in on the top. Unlike other similarly large mills in the area, most notably the Washburn A Mill, the Pillsbury A-Mill never exploded or caught fire. As a result, it still contains its original wood frame.</p><br>
<p>During the renovation project, a new hydroelectric turbine was installed in a tunnel below the complex. The same tunnel was originally used to mechanically power milling equipment with diverted river water. Due to the significant investment made in sustainable features such as the hydro-electric turbine and a hydrothermal system providing 75% of the building&#39;s energy needs, the project achieved LEED Gold Certification in 2017.</p><br>
<p>Weems–Botts House Museum is a small historic museum in Dumfries, Virginia, United States. The museum includes the landmark Weems–Botts House on the corner of Duke Street and Cameron Street and the Weems–Botts Museum Annex, which houses the Lee Lansing Research Library and Archive, located at 3944 Cameron Street. Both buildings are located in Merchant Park. The parks bandstand commemorates William Grayson, one of Prince William Countys most respected citizens and one of Virginias first senators. The museum tour showcases the history of Dumfries, Virginias oldest chartered town, and people associated with the house, including Mason Locke "Parson" Weems, and attorney Benjamin Botts.</p><br>
<p>The museum was restored in 1975 as part of a bicentennial USA restoration project. The museum is owned by the Town of Dumfries and operated by Historic Dumfries Virginia, Inc., a non-profit organization.</p><br>
<h2>Historical significance</h2><br>
<p>The house was purchased by Parson Weems, a native Marylander, in 1798. Weems was a clergyman who became an author and purveyor of books, which he would sell from the back of his jersey wagon. While traveling through Dumfries during one of his book-selling tours, Weems met Fanny Ewell, the daughter of Colonel Jesse Ewell, a wealthy tobacco planter with a warehouse business in Dumfries. They married in 1795.</p><br>
<p>During his ownership of the house, Weems wrote an 80-page booklet that would influence the thoughts of Americans to this day entitled A History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Exploits of General George Washington. Weems published the first biography on George Washington and was the creator of the famous cherry tree story ("I cannot tell a lie, I did it with my little hatchet"). Weems also created the fable that Washington threw a silver dollar more than 300 feet across the Rappahannock River. He also wrote biographies on Benjamin Franklin, Francis Marion, and William Penn. Sometime after the death of his father-in-law in 1805, Weems moved his family into the Ewell family estate, Bel Air.</p><br>
<p>Weems sold his shop in 1802 to an attorney named Benjamin Botts. Benjamin Botts used the building as his law office. Best remembered as one of the defense attorneys who successfully defended Aaron Burr during his infamous treason and conspiracy trial, Botts was a Dumfries native and rising star in Virginia&#39;s legal community. Botts was killed in the Richmond Theater fire on December 26, 1811.</p><br>
<p>The Galveston Seawall is a seawall in Galveston, Texas, that was built after the Galveston hurricane of 1900 for protection from future hurricanes. Construction began in September 1902, and the initial segment was completed on July 29, 1904. From 1904 to 1963, the seawall was extended from 3.3 mi to over 10 mi.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Although the Seawall performed as intended, it created an unintended and insurmountable consequence: passive erosion resulting in the gradual disappearance of the once-wide beach and the resort business with it. "Within twenty years, the city had lost one hundred yards of sand. People who once watched auto racing on a wide beach were left with a narrow strip of sand at low tide and a gloomy vista of waves on rocks when the tide was high." Houston soon overtook Galveston as the major city in the region.</p><br>
<p>Reporting in the aftermath of the 1983 Hurricane Alicia, the Corps of Engineers estimated that $100 million in damage was avoided because of the seawall. On September 13, 2008, Hurricane Ike&#39;s large waves over-topped the seawall. As a result, a commission was established by the Texas governor to investigate preparing for and mitigating future disasters.</p><br>
<p>A proposal has been put forth to build an "Ike Dike", a massive levee system that would protect the Galveston Bay and the important industrial facilities that line the coast and the Houston Ship Channel from a future, potentially more destructive storm. The proposal has gained widespread support from a variety of business interests. However, this proposal never passed the conceptual stage. Since 2009 there has been many similar propositions brought forth for a more practical layered network to consist of smaller, local levees and natural protections have been put forward by the SSPEED Center at Rice University and the University of Houston. These proposals include a surge gate at the mouth of the Houston Ship Channel connecting adjacent high ground near the Hartman Bridge and hard protections for the west shore of Galveston Bay and around the densely developed east end of Galveston Island. Also included is the proposed lower coastal Lone Star Coastal National Recreation Area.</p><br>
<p>Texas F.M. 3005 is known as Seawall Boulevard where it runs along the seawall. The sidewalk adjacent to Seawall Boulevard on top of the seawall is claimed to be the longest continuous sidewalk in the world at 10.3 mi long.</p><br>
<p>The seawall is 10 mi long. It is approximately 17 ft high and 16 ft thick at its base. The seawall was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1977 and designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers in 2001.</p><br>
<p>Many miles of the seawall are painted with murals. These huge murals are painted by children and depict underwater life.</p><br>
<p>The Crozer Theological Seminary was a Baptist seminary located in Upland, Pennsylvania, and founded in 1868. It was named after the wealthy industrialist, John Price Crozer.</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther King Jr. was a student at Crozer Theological Seminary from 1948 to 1951, being elected student body president and graduating with a Bachelor of Divinity degree.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the seminary merged with the Rochester Theological Seminary, forming the Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School in Rochester, New York and the seminarys Old Main building was subsequently used as office space by Crozer Hospital (now part of the Crozer-Chester Medical Center.) The Old Main building is a three-story, F-shaped, stucco-coated stone building with three pavilions connected by a corridor with flanking rooms. Each of the pavilions is topped by a gable roof and cupola, the largest cupola being on the central pavilion. The seminarys grounds are now the Crozer Arboretum.</p><br>
<p>The Old Main building in Upland was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Seminary began as the Normal School of Upland, established and built by the president of the board of directors of the American Baptist Publication Society, John Price Crozer. After the outbreak of the American Civil War, the school was closed.</p><br>
<p>Crozer allowed the Union army to use the building as a hospital during the Civil War. The hospital contained a thousand beds and accommodated 300 nurses, attendants and guards. The patients were almost exclusively Union soldiers except for after the battle of Gettysburg, in July 1863, when the number of wounded and sick Confederate army soldiers left on the battlefield required their acceptance at the hospital. During the war, more than 6,000 patients were treated. Many of the dead from the hospital were some of the first burials at nearby Chester Rural Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>After the war, the building was repossessed by Crozer and subsequently sold to Colonel Theodore Hyatt for use as the Pennsylvania Military Academy until 1868.</p><br>
<p>Crozer died in 1866. When Old Main was vacated by the Pennsylvania Military Academy his family converted the school to the Crozer Theological Seminary in his honor. His son recruited faculty for the new mission, It served as an American Baptist Church school, training seminarians for entry into the Baptist ministry from 1868 to 1970. Henry G. Watson was named its first President in 1869.</p><br>
<p>In 1970 the school moved to Rochester, New York, in a merger that formed the Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School. The old seminary building was used as the former Crozer Hospital (now the Crozer-Chester Medical Center). The building is currently used as administrative offices for the Crozer-Chester Medical Center.</p><br>
<h2>Campus</h2><br>
<p>The multi-acre campus contains the Crozer Arboretum and the following buildings:</p><br>
<p>Humpstone</p><br>
<p>President&#39;s House</p><br>
<p>Pollard House</p><br>
<p>CHEC</p><br>
<p>Evans House</p><br>
<p>Crozer Hall</p><br>
<p>Neisser House</p><br>
<p>Lewis House</p><br>
<p>Vedder House</p><br>
<p>Davis House</p><br>
<p>Sunnyside House</p><br>
<p>Westin House</p><br>
<p>Franklin House</p><br>
<h3>Pearl Hall</h3><br>
<p>Pearl Hall is a serpentine stone library on the campus which opened on June 4, 1871. The building was sponsored by William Bucknell, the benefactor of Bucknell University, in memory of his late wife Margaret Crozer, the daughter of John Price Crozer. In addition to the $30,000 cost of the building, Bucknell also gave $25,000 for the cost of books and $10,000 for an endowment fund.</p><br>
<h2>Notable alumni</h2><br>
<p>George Barbier, actor</p><br>
<p>J. Pius Barbour, pastor of Calvary Baptist Church in Chester, Pennsylvania, executive director of the National Baptist Association, editor of the National Baptist Voice, mentor to Martin Luther King Jr., first African-American graduate of Crozer Theological Seminary</p><br>
<p>Amos Brown, pastor and civil-rights activist</p><br>
<p>John Warren Davis, New Jersey politician and federal judge, taught Greek and Hebrew at Crozer Theological Seminary for three years</p><br>
<p>William Augustus Jones Jr., minister and civil rights leader</p><br>
<p>Martin Luther King Jr., Baptist minister and civil rights leader</p><br>
<p>Samuel D. Proctor, minister, educator and humanitarian</p><br>
<h2>Notable faculty</h2><br>
<p>John Warren Davis, taught Hebrew and Greek for three years</p><br>
<p>Lemuel Moss, professor of New Testament</p><br>
<p>James B. Pritchard, taught in the chair of Old Testament History and Exegesis</p><br>
<p>Henry Clay Vedder, professor of Church history</p><br>
<p>The United States Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, generally known as Carlisle Indian Industrial School, was the flagship Indian boarding school in the United States from its founding in 1879 through 1918. It was based in the historic Carlisle Barracks, which was transferred to the Department of Interior from the War Department for the purpose of establishing the school. More than 7,800 children from 140 Indian tribes were separated from their communities and sent to the school. After the United States entered World War I, however, the school was closed, and the property on which it was located was transferred back for use by the USA Department of Defense. The property is now part of the USA Army War College, and it was designated a national monument by President Joe Biden in December 2024. Carlisle Federal Indian Boarding School National Monument will be co-managed by the Army and the National Park Service in consultation with tribes.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>Founded in 1879 by Lieutenant Richard Henry Pratt under USA government authorization, Carlisle Indian Industrial School was an early federally funded off-reservation Indian boarding school initiated by the USA government. Choctaw Academy in Scott County, Kentucky, was the first such boarding school, but was initiated by Choctaw leaders and then funded by the USA government through the 1819 Civilization Fund Act.</p><br>
<p>Pratt had earlier supervised Native American prisoners of war, and supported some of them in gaining education at Hampton College. He became convinced that education was the key to assimilation. In his own words, Pratt&#39;s motto was, "Kill the Indian, save the man." The US applied this principle to the cultural assimilation efforts of the larger American Indian boarding school system, by requiring children to speak only English, practice Christianity, take on new names and wear European-American style clothing.</p><br>
<p>Pratt wrote that he believed that Native Americans were equal to European Americans, and that the school worked to immerse students into mainstream Euro-American culture. He believed that this would enable them to advance and thrive in the dominant society, and be leaders to their people.</p><br>
<p>After the government assessed the initial success of older Indian students at Hampton Normal and Agricultural School and some in Upstate New York, who were former prisoners of war, Lieutenant Pratt was authorized to establish the first all-Indian school, and founded the Carlisle Indian Industrial School at the historic Carlisle Barracks in central Pennsylvania, and the property was transferred from the War Department to the USA Department of the Interior for this purpose.</p><br>
<p>As at Hampton, arriving students were shorn of their long hair, and even their names were changed. However, "unlike Hampton, whose purpose was to return assimilated educated Indians to their people, Carlisle meant to turn the school into the ultimate Americanizer". At Carlisle, Pratt established a highly structured, quasi-military regime. He was known to use corporal punishment, which was not uncommon in society at the time, on students.</p><br>
<p>Carlisle emerged as the model for 26 off-reservation Bureau of Indian Affairs boarding schools that were ultimately developed in 15 states and territories. Some private boarding schools were sponsored by religious denominations. In addition, the government operated a total of more than 300 schools on reservations, many of which accepted boarding students from other tribes.</p><br>
<p>At Fort Marion, Florida in the 1870s, Pratt was assigned to supervise former warriors, several dozen Native American prisoners selected from among those who had surrendered in the Indian Territory at the end of the Red River War. He gradually introduced them to classes in the English language, art, guard duty, and craftsmanship. The program became well-known. Distinguished visitors began to visit from all over the country, especially as St. Augustine had become a winter resort for the wealthy.</p><br>
<p>The USA Commissioner of Education came to see firsthand what Pratt was doing, as did the president of Amherst College. Pratt&#39;s Fort Marion program convinced him that "distant education" was the only way to totally assimilate the Indian. He wrote, the Indian "is born a blank, like all the rest of us. Transfer the savage born infant to the surroundings of a civilization and he will grow to possess a civilized language and habit."</p><br>
<p>Pratt wrote:</p><br>
<p>If all men are created equal, then why were blacks segregated in separate regiments and Indians segregated on separate tribal reservations? Why weren&#39;t all men given equal opportunities and allowed to assume their rightful place in society? Race became a meaningless abstraction in his mind.</p><br>
<p>Pratt believed an industrial school model similar to the Hampton Institute would be useful for educating and assimilating Native Americans.</p><br>
<p>Pratt and his supporters successfully lobbied Congress to establish the off-reservation boarding school for Native Americans at the historic Carlisle Barracks in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<p>By October 1879, Lieutenant Pratt had recruited the first students for the Carlisle Indian Industrial School; 82 boys and girls arrived one night at midnight at the railroad station. They were met by hundreds of local residents who escorted them to the "Old Barracks". The Carlisle Indian School formally opened on November 1, 1879, with an enrollment of 147 students. The youngest was six and the eldest twenty-five, but the majority were teenagers.</p><br>
<p>Two-thirds were children of leaders of the Plains Indian tribes, with whom the USA had recently been at war. The first class was made up of 84 Lakota, 52 Cheyenne, Kiowa and Pawnee, and 11 Apache. The class included a group of students, former prisoners from Fort Marion, who wanted to continue their education with Pratt at Carlisle.</p><br>
<p>Pratt believed Native Americans were the equal of whites, and founded Carlisle to immerse their children in white culture and teach them English, new skills and customs, in order to help them survive. After the end of Great Sioux War in 1877, the Lakota people were impoverished, harassed and confined to reservations... many believed that Native Americans were a vanishing race whose only hope for survival was rapid cultural transformation. Thus the USA government urgently sought a progressive educational model to quickly assimilate Indians into white culture. Whether this could be achieved and how rapidly it could be done was unknown. Pratt believed he could make use of the Carlisle facility. He thought its proximity to officials in Washington, D.C. would help him educate officials about the Indian capacity for learning.</p><br>
<p>As part of Pratts curriculum in cultural and language immersion, the schools students were expected to learn English. School officials also required students to take new English names, either by choice or assignment. This was confusing, as the names from which they had to choose had no meaning for them. Luther Standing Bear (Sicangu-Oglala) was one of the first students when Carlisle began operations in 1879. He was asked to choose a name from a list on the wall. He randomly pointed at the symbols on a wall, and was renamed as Luther. The school assigned his father&#39;s name, Standing Bear, as his surname.</p><br>
<p>The children were forced to change their manner of dress and to give up their traditional tribal ways. The boys all had long hair, which was a strong tradition in their cultures: it was cut short in Euro-American style. Students were required to wear school uniforms of American-style clothing, and girls were provided with uniform dresses.</p><br>
<p>Standing Bear later wrote of this period:</p><br>
<p>The civilizing process at Carlisle began with clothes. Whites believed the Indian children could not be civilized while wearing moccasins and blankets. Their hair was cut because in some mysterious way long hair stood in the path of our development. They were issued the clothes of white men. High collar stiff-bosomed shirts and suspenders fully three inches in width were uncomfortable. White leather boots caused actual suffering.</p><br>
<p>Standing Bear said that red flannel underwear caused "actual torture." He remembered the red flannel underwear as "the worst thing about life at Carlisle."</p><br>
<p>Some children arrived at Carlisle able to speak some English; they were used by school officials as translators for other students. Officials sometimes took advantage of the childrens traditional respect for elders to get them to inform on peers misbehaviors. This was consistent with accepted practice in the large European-American families of the time, where older children were often required to care for and discipline their younger siblings.</p><br>
<p>School discipline was strict and consistent, according to the military tradition. Students faced courts-martial for serious cases. Elaine Goodale Eastman, who had supervised government Indian education on reservations west of the Missouri River, later wrote of Carlisle that organizing Indian boys into squads and companies appealed to their warrior traditions. She believed they complied because they wanted to earn officers ranks, recognition, and privileges. She also observed that there was genuine affection&#39; between the Captain and the students.</p><br>
<p>Children who could not adjust at Carlisle eventually returned to their families and homes. Some ran away because of being homesick and unhappy. According to Eastman, several years after one young man ran away, he approached Pratt in the lobby of a New York hotel. He said that he had found a good job, was working hard, and had saved some money. "Hurrah!" the Captain exclaimed. "I wish all my boys would run away!"</p><br>
<h3>Student recruitment</h3><br>
<p>In November 1878, Pratt was ordered by the War Department to report to the Secretary of the Interior for Indian education duty. He traveled to Dakota Territory to recruit Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota students for the new school. These tribes were selected by Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ezra Hayt, because they had resisted ceding more territory to the United States government. It was less than three years after Lakota warriors and their allies had defeated Custer and the USA 7th Cavalry Regiment at the Little Big Horn.</p><br>
<p>The War Department ordered Pratt to go to Red Cloud (Oglala) and Spotted Tail (Sicangu), to compel the chiefs to surrender their children. The government believed that by removing the Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota children from their homes, the US would have leverage against the tribes in their continuing attempt to acquire tribal land. Pratt said that, "The children would be hostages for the good behavior of the people."</p><br>
<p>Pratt persuaded tribal elders and chiefs that the reason the "Washichu" (Lakota word for white man, loosely translates to Takes the Fat) had been able to take their land was that the Indians were uneducated. He said that the Natives were disadvantaged by being unable to speak and write English and, if they had that knowledge, they might have been able to protect themselves. Pratt used this speech to convince chief Spotted Tail to send his children to the school. At first he had been reluctant to relinquish his children to the government that had stolen native land and violated their treaties.</p><br>
<p>Spotted Tail, you are a remarkable man. You are such an able man that you are the principal chief of these thousands of your people. But Spotted Tail, you cannot read or write. You claim that the government has tricked your people and placed the lines of your reservation a long way inside of where it was agreed that they should be. You signed that paper, knowing only what the interpreter told you it said. If anything happened when the paper was being made up that changed its order, if you had been educated and could read and write, you could have known about it and refused to put your name on it. Do you intend to let your children remain in the same condition of ignorance in which you have lived, which will compel them always to meet the whiter man at a great disadvantage through an interpreter, as you have to do? As your friend, Spotted Tail, I urge you to send your children with me to this Carlisle School and I will do everything I can to advance them in intelligence and industry in order that they may come back and help you.</p><br>
<p>Consent to send students to Carlisle was often gained with concessions, such as the promise to allow tribal leaders inspect the school soon after it opened.</p><br>
<p>The first group of inspectors, some 40 Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota chiefs representing nine Missouri River agencies, visited Carlisle in June 1880. Other tribal leaders followed. Before tribal delegations returned home, they usually spent a few days in Washington where they received the plaudits of government officials for allowing their children to participate in the Carlisle experiment.</p><br>
<p>Some tribes initially consented to sending their children to off-reservation boarding schools, but many were skeptical of the school system and its intentions. Many tribes did not believe the promises of the schools, as they were scarred by the genocidal tactics of the USA government. Once students were in school, communication with home was virtually cut off. Letters from parents were left unsent by Indian Agents, and parents were not notified promptly when their children were ill or even after they died.</p><br>
<p>Although the Civilization Fund Act of 1819 required parental consent for children to be sent to off-reservation boarding schools, in practice children were regularly forcibly removed. US officials justified the practice of forceful removal because they believed that native parenting practices were seen as inferior to mainstream white parenting. John S. Ward, a US Indian Agent, said that "The parents of these Indian children are ignorant, and know nothing of the value of education... Parental authority is hardly known or exercised among the Indians in this agency. The agent should be endowed with some kind of authority to enforce attendance. The agent here has found that a threat to depose a captain if he does not make the children attend school has had a good effect." Ward reiterated the US government&#39;s self-appointed position as a patriarchal ward over natives. Government officials treated tribal nations as dependents, and acted as if they could justifiably force a childlike nation to do what was best for them. The US officially legalized the denial of native parental rights in 1891, leading to mass forced removal of native children from their families. It was not until the 1976 Indian Child Welfare Act that this practice was ended.</p><br>
<h3>American Horse</h3><br>
<p>Oglala Lakota Chief American Horse was one of the earliest advocates of western (Euro-immigrant) education for Native Americans. While recruiting at Pine Ridge Reservation, Pratt had met strong opposition from Chief Red Cloud. He distrusted white education but had no school-age children.</p><br>
<p>American Horse "took a lively interest" in what Pratt had to say. He was a tribal leader and head of a large household with at least ten children. He believed that his children would have to deal with whites, and perhaps live with them, whether they liked it or not. He decided to send two sons and a daughter for the first class at Carlisle in 1879.</p><br>
<h3>Model USA Indian Boarding School</h3><br>
<p>Pratt was so successful in his correspondence and methods that many Western chiefs, whose people were suffering from cold and hunger on their reservations, begged him to bring more children East. The chiefs also wrote to Washington with a request to educate more of their children.</p><br>
<p>News of the educational experiment spread rapidly, and many whites went to Carlisle to volunteer services and professional talents. Pratt developed a photographic record of the school for publicity and documentation. The institution and the school were photographed during the schools existence by approximately a dozen professional photographers. The first and best known photographer of the Carlisle Indian School was John Nicolas Choate. After Indian dress was replaced with military uniforms and the childrens hair was cut in Anglo fashion, the Indians&#39; physical appearance was transformed. In an effort to convince doubters of the transformation possible, Pratt hired photographers to present this evidence. Before and after "contrast" photos were sent to officials in Washington, friends of the new school, and back to reservations to recruit new students.</p><br>
<p>The minimum age for students was fourteen, and all students were required to be at least one-fourth Indian. The Carlisle term was five years, and the consent forms which the parents signed before the agent so stated. Pratt refused to return pupils earlier unless they were ill, unsuitable mentally, or a menace to others.</p><br>
<p>Between 1899 and 1904, Carlisle issued thirty to forty-five degrees a year. In 1905, a survey of 296 Carlisle graduates showed that 124 had entered government service (often with reservation agencies), and 47 were employed off the reservations.</p><br>
<p>Anniversaries and other school events attracted whites of distinction. US senators, Indian commissioners, secretaries of the Interior, college presidents, and noted clergymen were among those invited to present the diplomas or address the graduating class upon these occasions. The gymnasium held 3,000 persons and was generally filled with an audience of townspeople and distinguished visitors showing their support for aspiring Carlisle students.</p><br>
<h2>Community</h2><br>
<h3>Carlisle, Pennsylvania</h3><br>
<p>signed a petition in favor of the proposed school</p><br>
<p>In 1880, Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was a thriving town as a borough and county seat of Cumberland County, west of the Susquehanna River, with a population of 6,209 people. The shoe factory in town employed over 800 residents. There were two railroads, three banks and ten hotels in Carlisle by the time Pratt established his school. By the late 19th century, there were 1,117 "colored residents" in Carlisle. Carlisle boasted a low unemployment rate and a high literacy rate at the time of the census. It was considered a good location, as it was not in a big city. It was not so far West that the students would be able to run away back to their families. The historic Carlisle Barracks (established 1757, afterwards site of the USA Army War College, and USA Army Heritage and Education Center, ) were vacant and available for use. The military site was less than two miles from an already well established educational institution, Dickinson College (founded 1773, chartered 1783). When the first Indian School students arrived in Carlisle on October 6, 1879, they were in tribal dress. "For the people of Carlisle it was a gala day and a great crowd gathered around the railroad. The older Indian boys sang songs aloud in order to keep their spirits up and remain courageous, even though they were frightened." "For years, it was a common event for the people of Carlisle to greet the Carlisle Indian football victors on their homecoming. Led by the Indian School Band, the Carlisle Indians paraded in their nightshirts down the streets of Carlisle and on to the school on the edge of town." Residents of Carlisle stood on their doorsteps and cheered as the Carlisle Band led a snake dance from one end of town to the other.</p><br>
<h3>Dickinson College</h3><br>
<p>Carlisle was also home to Dickinson College, less than two miles from the Carlisle Indian School, Americas 16th oldest college. Dickinson College and the Carlisle Indian School collaboration began when Dr. James Andrew McCauley, President of Dickinson College, led the first worship service at the Indian School in 1879. It was Mrs. Pratt who had initiated the contact between the Indian School and Dickinson. Upon Pratts absence one Sunday, Mrs. Pratt wrote to President McCauley and requested his aid as a minister which he graciously accepted. The relationship did not stop there with Richard Pratt noting that, "from that time forward Dr. McCauley became an advisor and most valued friend to the school.". The collaborative effort between Dickinson College and the Carlisle Indian School lasted almost four decades, from the opening day to the closing of the school. Dr. McCauley helped Pratt to develop a board of trustees and a Board of Visitors composed of different heads of leading national educational institutions and wealthy donors. Dickinson College professors served as chaplains and special faculty to the Indian School, and college students volunteered services, observed teaching methods and participated in events. Dickinson College also provided Carlisle Indian School students with access to the Dickinson Preparatory School (Conway Hall) and college level education. Thomas P. Marshall, a Sioux from Pine Ridge agency, South Dakota, was one of the first Native American students at Dickinson (he was laid to rest at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School cemetery). Carlisle is also home to the Dickinson School of Law (1834), now part of The Pennsylvania State University, and in the early 1900s a few Carlisle Indian School graduates attended the law school: Albert A. Exendine, Ernest Robitaille, Hastings M. Robertson, Victor M. Kelley, and William J. Gardner.</p><br>
<p>In 1889, Dr. George Edward Reed assumed the position of President of Dickinson College and continued the close relationship between the Indian School and Dickinson College through Pratts departure in 1904. Reed told an audience at the Indian School that "we who live in Carlisle, who come in constant contact with the Indian School, and who know of its work, have occasion to be agreeably surprised with the advance we are able to see." In June 1911, Reed addressed the one hundred and twenty-eighth commencement of Dickinson College, where he presented an Honorary Degree of Master of Arts to Pratts successor, Superintendent Moses Friedman, for his work at the Carlisle Indian School.</p><br>
<p>Prof. Charles Francis Himes was a professor of natural science at Dickinson College for three decades and instrumental in expanding the science curriculum. Professor Hines took an interest in the Carlisle Indian School and his notable lectures on electricity ("Why Does It Burn"), "Lightning" and "Gunpowder" received a favorable reaction from parents and students. Himes lectured to Chiefs Red Cloud, Roman Nose and Yellow Tail, and brought Indian students to the Dickinson laboratory to give lectures. Himes also promoted Carlisle&#39;s success in national academic circles.</p><br>
<p>Luther Standing Bear recalled that one day an astronomer came to Carlisle and gave a talk. "The astronomer explained that there would be an eclipse of the moon the following Wednesday night at twelve o&#39;clock. We did not believe it. When the moon eclipsed, we readily believed our teacher about geography and astronomy."</p><br>
<p>In addition to academic contact, the two institutes had contact in the public venue as well. The best known instances include the regular defeats of Dickinson College by the Carlisle Indian School football team and other athletic competitions.</p><br>
<h2>Curricula and extracurricular programs</h2><br>
<p>Carlisle curricula included subjects such as English, math, history, drawing and composition. Students also learned trade and work skills such as farming and manufacturing. Older students used their skills to help build new classrooms and dormitories. Carlisle students produced a variety of weekly and monthly newspapers and other publications that were considered part of their "industrial training," or preparing for work in the larger economy. Marianne Moore was a teacher at Carlisle before she became one of Americas leading poets. Music was a part of the program, and many students studied classical instruments. The Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation. Native American teachers eventually joined the faculty, such as Ho-Chunk artist Angel DeCora, taught students about Native American art and heritage and fought harsh assimilation methods. Students were instructed in Christianity and expected to attend a local church, but had their choice among those in town. Carlisle students were required to attend a daily service and two services on Sundays. Students were expected to participate in various extracurricular activities. In addition to the YMCA and Kings Daughters Circle, the girls could choose between the Mercer Literary Society and the Susan Longstreth Society. The boys had a choice of the Standard Literary Society or the Invincible Debating Society.</p><br>
<p>A summer camp was established in the mountains at Pine Grove Furnace State Park, near a place called Taggs Run. Students lived in tents and picked berries, hunted and fished. Luther Standing Bear recalled: "In 1881, after the school closed for the summer vacation, some of the boys and girls were placed out in farmers homes to work throughout the summer. Those who remained at school were sent to the mountains for a vacation trip. I was among the number. When we reached our camping place, we pitched out tents like soldiers all in a row. Captain Pratt brought along a lot of feathers and some sinew, and we made bows and arrows. Many white people came to visit the Indian camp, and seeing us shooting with the bow and arrow, they would put nickels and dimes in a slot of wood and set them up for us to shoot at. If we knocked the money from the stick, it was ours. We enjoyed this sport very much, as it brought a real home thrill to us."</p><br>
<h3>Carlisle Summer Outing Program</h3><br>
<p>The Carlisle Summer Outing Program arranged for students to work in homes as domestic servants or in farms or businesses during the summer. The program won praise from reformers and administrators alike and helped increase the public&#39;s faith that Indians could be educated and assimilated. The program gave students opportunities to interact and live in the white world and found jobs for students during the summer months with middle-class farm families where they earned their first wages. Many students worked in the homes and farms of Quaker families in eastern Pennsylvania and surrounding states. Some were sent to farms in the Pennsylvania Dutch Country of Dauphin, Lancaster, and Lebanon counties and acquired what would be a lifelong Pennsylvania Dutch accent.</p><br>
<p>Students were required to write home at least every month, and as often as they chose. Nearly all the students lovingly inquired after absent brothers and sisters, and many sent money home ten or twenty dollars of their own earnings.</p><br>
<p>Maggie Stands Looking, a daughter of Oglala Lakota Chief American Horse, was among the first wave of children brought from Rosebud and one of Captain Pratt&#39;s model students. Maggie had difficulty adjusting to the demands of her new lifestyle at Carlisle, and once slapped Miss Hyde, the matron, when Hyde insisted that Maggie make her bed every day and keep her room clean. Instead of retaliating, Miss Hyde stood her ground and Maggie acquiesced. Like most of the Carlisle students, Maggie was enrolled in the Summer Outing Program. After her arrival to her country home, Maggie wrote a letter to Pratt. "Dear Captain Pratt: What shall I do? I have been here two weeks and I have not bathed. These folks have no bath place. Your school daughter, Maggie Stands Looking." Pratt advised her to do as he had done on the frontier and signed his letter "Your friend and school father. R.H. Pratt." Maggie replied, "After filling a wash basin with water and rubbing myself well, have had a bath that made me feel as good as jumping into a river."</p><br>
<p>The Outing Program continued throughout the Carlisle&#39;s history, and of the thousands who attended Carlisle for the first twenty-four years, a least half participated in the program. Around 1909, Superintendent Friedman expanded the Outing Program by placing boys in manufacturing corporations such as Ford Motor Company. Over sixty of the boys from Carlisle were subsequently hired and worked steadily for Ford. During the later part of World War I, about forty had good jobs in the Hog Island, Philadelphia, shipyards.</p><br>
<h3>Student internships</h3><br>
<p>In 1883, Luther Standing Bear was sent to Philadelphia to work as an intern for John Wanamaker. Wanamakers was the first department store in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and one of the first department stores in the United States. Luther was told by Pratt: "My boy you are going away from us to work for this school. Go and do your best. The majority of white people think the Indian is a lazy good-for-nothing. They think he can neither work nor learn anything; that he is very dirty. Now you are going to prove that the red man can learn and work as well as the white man. If John Wanamaker gives you the job of blacking his shoes, see that you make them shine. Then he will give you a better job. If you are put into the office to clean, dont forget to sweep up under the chairs and in the corners. If you do this well, he will give you better work to do." While riding on street cars in Philadelphia, Luther did not care to listen to the vulgar language used by white boys on the way to work. At the end of his internship, the entire Carlisle school students and faculty traveled to a large meeting hall in Philadelphia where Pratt and Wanamaker spoke. Luther was asked to come to the stage, and Wanamaker told the students that Luther had been promoted from one department to another every month getting better work and better money and in spite of the fact that he employed over one thousand people, he never promoted anyone as rapidly as Luther.</p><br>
<h3>The Carlisle Indians (sports teams)</h3><br>
<p>During the early 20th century, the Carlisle Indian School was a national football powerhouse, and regularly competed against other major programs such as the Ivy League schools Harvard, Pennsylvania, Cornell, Dartmouth, Yale, Princeton, and Brown, and Army (West Point) and Navy (Annapolis). Coach Pop Warner led a highly successful football team and athletic program at the Carlisle School, and went on to create other successful collegiate programs. He coached the exceptional athlete Jim Thorpe and his teammates, bringing national recognition to the small school. By 1907, the Carlisle Indians were the most dynamic team in college football. They had pioneered the forward pass, the overhand spiral and other trick plays that frustrated their opponents. The Carlisle Indians have been characterized as the "team that invented football."</p><br>
<p>In 1911, the Indians posted an 11–1 record, which included one of the greatest upsets in college football history. Legendary athlete Jim Thorpe and coach Pop Warner led the Carlisle Indians to an 18–15 upset of Harvard before 25,000 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Thorpe scored all the points for Carlisle, a touchdown, extra point and four field goals. During the program&#39;s 25 years, the Carlisle Indians compiled a 167–88–13 record and winning percentage (.647), which makes it the most successful defunct major college football program. The Carlisle Indians developed a rivalry with Harvard and loved to sarcastically mimic the Harvard accent. Even players who could barely speak English would drawl the broad Harvard "a" with a Boston accent. Carlisle students labeled any excellent performance, whether on the field or in the classroom, as "Harvard style".</p><br>
<p>On November 9, 1912, Carlisle was to meet the USA Military Academy in a game at West Point, New York, between two of the top teams in the country. Pop Warner spoke to his team: "Your fathers and your grandfathers," Warner began, "are the ones who fought their fathers. These men playing against you today are soldiers. They are the Long Knives. You are Indians. Tonight, we will know if you are warriors." That dramatic evening Carlisle routed Army 27–6. That game, played just 22 years after the last Army battle with the Lakota/Sioux at the Wounded Knee, featured not only Jim Thorpe, but nine future generals including a linebacker named Dwight D. Eisenhower. "It was an exquisitely apt piece of national theater: a contest between Indians and soldiers."</p><br>
<p>Many Carlisle Indians such Frank Mount Pleasant, Gus Welch, Francis M. Cayou, Joe Guyon, Pete Calac, Bemus Pierce, Hawley Pierce, Frank Hudson, William Jennings Gardner, Martin Wheelock, Jimmy Johnson, Isaac Seneca, Artie Miller, Bill Newashe, Woodchuck Welmas, Ted St. Germaine, Bill Winneshiek, and Albert Exendine became professional athletes, coaches, educators, and community leaders.</p><br>
<h3>The Carlisle Indian Band</h3><br>
<p>The Carlisle Indian Band earned an international reputation under a talented Oneida musician, Dennison Wheelock, who became noted as its leader, composer and compiler of modified Native airs. Many students studied classical musical instruments. The Carlisle Indian Band performed at world fairs, expositions and every at national presidential inaugural celebration until the school closed. Luther Standing Bear was a bugler for military calls and educated as a classical musician. On May 24, 1883, Luther Standing Bear led the Carlisle Indian band of brass instruments as the first band to cross the Brooklyn Bridge on its grand opening.</p><br>
<p>From 1897 to 1899, Zitkala-Ša played violin with the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston. In 1899, she took a position at the Carlisle Indian School where she taught music to the children and conducted debates on the treatment of Native Americans. In 1900, Zitkala-Ša played violin at the Paris Exposition with the schools Carlisle Indian Band. In the same year, she began writing articles on Native American life which were published in such popular periodicals as Atlantic Monthly and Harpers Monthly. Also in 1900, Zitkala-Ša was sent by Captain Pratt back to the Yankton Reservation for the first time in several years to recruit students. She was greatly dismayed to find there that her mothers house was in disrepair and her brothers family in poverty, and that white settlers were beginning to occupy the land promised to the Yankton Dakota by the Dawes Act of 1877. Upon returning to Carlisle, she came into conflict with Pratt. She resented the rigid program of assimilation and argued that the curricula did not encourage Native American children to aspire to anything beyond lives spent in menial labor. In 1901 Zitkala-Ša was dismissed, likely for an article she had published in Harpers Monthly describing the profound loss of identity felt by a Native American boy after being given an assimilationist education at Carlisle. Concerned with her mothers advanced age and her family&#39;s struggles with poverty, she returned to the Yankton Reservation in 1901. Zitkala-Ša dedicated her life to Indian reform, voting rights and education.</p><br>
<h3>Native American arts program</h3><br>
<p>Francis E. Leupp, Commissioner of Indian Affairs from 1904 to 1909, had a strong influence over the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. Leupp encouraged promoting Indian culture by teaching native arts and craft. In 1905, Leupp wrote for the Carlisle Arrow: "It seems to me that one of the errors good people fall into in dealing with the Indian is taking it for granted that their first duty is to make a white man out of him." He also stated, "The Indian is a natural warrior, a natural logician, a natural artist. We have room for all three in our highly organized social system. Let us not make the mistake, in the process, of absorbing them, of washing out of them whatever is distinctly Indian."</p><br>
<p>In 1906, Leupp appointed Native American artist Angel De Cora, trained at Hampton Institute, Virginia and Smith College, Massachusetts, to be instructor of the first Native arts course at the Carlisle. De Cora agreed to accept the position at Carlisle only if she "shall not be expected to teach in the white man&#39;s way, but shall be given complete liberty to develop the art of my own race and to apply this, as far as possible, to various forms of art, industries and crafts." The project was ambitious, and in 1907 students constructed the Leupp Indian Art Studio. The studio was strategically positioned to the entrance to the campus and designed as an exhibition hall and artist studio. Materials were purchased by using profits from the prior Carlisle Indians football season. Public demand for Native American arts was growing, and proceeds from sales were used to raise funds for individuals on reservations and to cultivate public interest in Indian crafts. Students enjoyed Plains art and drawing traditional pictographs on paper and slates. The studio showcased paintings, drawings, leather work, beadwork, jewelry, and basketry made by students, and some produced on reservations. The floor was covered with colorful Navajo blankets. As head of the Leupp Art Studio from 1906 to 1915, De Cora emphasized design, and encouraged students to apply tribally-specific designs to marketable modern art media such as book plates, textiles, and wallpaper. Carlisle boasted a state-of-the-arts photography studio for students.</p><br>
<p>In 1908, De Cora married a Carlisle student Lone Star Dietz. At the age of 23, Dietz enrolled at Carlisle where he studied art in Philadelphia in the Summer Outing Program. After his marriage to De Cora he continued in the roles of student and assistant art teacher. In 1909, the school launched a monthly literary magazine known as the Indian Craftsman, later changed to The Red Man. Designed by the school&#39;s art department, printed and in part written by students, the magazine gained a wide reputation for the quality of its appearance and content. Lone Star created cover designs for almost all of the 50 issues of the magazine between 1909 and 1914. During their time at Carlisle, Angel and Lone Star Dietz brought cultural awareness to students through innovative teaching programs.</p><br>
<h2>Political context</h2><br>
<h3>Progressive Era fight for the image of Native Americans</h3><br>
<p>From 1886 to the onset of World War I, Progressive Reformists fought a war of images with Wild West shows before the American public at world fairs, expositions and parades. Pratt and other reformist progressives led an unsuccessful campaign to discourage Native Americans from joining Wild West shows. Reformist Progressives vigorously opposed to theatrical portrayals of Native Americans in popular Wild West shows and believed Wild West shows portrayed Native Americans as savages and vulgar stereotypes. Reformist progressives also believed Wild West shows exploited and demoralized Native Americans.</p><br>
<p>Other Progressives, such as "Buffalo Bill" Cody, who as Pratt believed Indians equals of whites, had a different approach. He allowed Indians to be Indians. New ideas were not to be thrust forcefully upon Native peoples. Cody believed Native Americans would observe modern life and different cultures, acquire new skills and customs, and change at their own pace and on their own terms. Both Pratt and Cody offered paths of opportunity and hope during time when people believed Native Americans were a vanishing race whose only hope for survival was rapid cultural transformation. Notwithstanding his criticisms, Pratt invited his old friend Buffalo Bill Cody and his Wild West show to perform in Carlisle on June 24, 1898. The school paper Red Man reported that students were "privileged to witness the best exhibition of some rude manners and customs of the people of the western frontier in the fifties and sixties."</p><br>
<p>During the Progressive Era of the late 19th and early 20th Centuries, there was an explosion of public interest in Native American culture and imagery. Newspapers, dime-store novels, Wild West shows and public exhibitions portrayed Native Americans as a "Vanishing Race." American and European anthropologists, historians, linguists, journalists, photographers, portraitists and early movie-makers believed time was of the essence to study western Native American peoples. Many researchers and artists lived on government reservations for extended periods to study Native Americans before they "vanished." Their inspired effort heralded the "Golden Age of the Wild West." Photographers included Gertrude Käsebier, Frank A. Rinehart, Edward Curtis, Jo Mora and John Nicholas Choate, while portraitists included Elbridge Ayer Burbank, Charles M. Russell and John Hauser. The "Vanishing Race" theme was dramatized at the Trans-Mississippi Exposition of 1898 at Omaha, Nebraska, and the Pan-American Exposition of 1901 in Buffalo, New York. Exposition organizers assembled Wild Westers representing different tribes who portrayed Native Americans as a "vanishing race" at "The Last Great Congress of the Red Man", brought together for the first and last time, apparently to commiserate before they all vanished.</p><br>
<p>During this period, USA Government policy focused upon acquiring Indian lands, restricting cultural and religious practices and sending Native American children to boarding schools. Progressives agreed that the situation was serious and that something needed to be done to educate and acculturate Native Americans to white society, but they differed as to education models and speed of assimilation. Reformist progressives, a coalition led by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Native American educators and Christian organizations, promoted rapid assimilation of children through off-reservation Indian boarding schools and immersion in white culture.</p><br>
<p>At Carlisle, Pratt developed a photographic record of the model school for publicity and documentation. The institution and the school were photographed during the schools existence by approximately a dozen professional photographers. The photographs evidenced that the school successfully acclimated Indians to the white mans culture. The first and best known photographer of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School was John Nicolas Choate. "After replacing Indian dress with military uniforms and cutting their hair in Anglo fashion, the Indians physical appearance was transformed." Before and after "contrast" photos were sent to officials in Washington, charitable donors and to reservations to recruit new students. "Pratts powerful photographs showing his quick results helped persuade Washington that he was doing vital work.</p><br>
<h3>Society of American Indians</h3><br>
<p>The Carlisle Indian School was a well-spring for the Society of American Indians, the first Indian rights organization created by and for Indians. The society was a group of about fifty prominent Native American intelligentsia who exchanged views collectively confronting their tribes and gave birth to Pan-Indianism. The organization was influenced by the Carlisle experience and dedicated to self-determination and preserving Native American culture. From 1911 to 1923, the society was forefront in the fight for Indian citizenship and the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924. Founding members included Dr. Carlos Montezuma, Dr. Charles Eastman, Angel De Cora, Zitkala-Ša and Chauncey Yellow Robe. The Society of American Indians printed a quarterly literary journal, American Indian Magazine. Dr. Montezuma joined Pratt at the Carlisle Indian School as a resident physician from 1895 to 1897. Montezuma, a correspondent with Pratt since 1887, was drawn to the noble experiment at Carlisle. The physician Charles Eastman and his wife, Elaine Goodale Eastman, and children, resided at Carlisle in 1899, and were frequent visitors and lecturers.</p><br>
<h2>Native Americans in mainstream culture at the time</h2><br>
<h3>World fairs and expositions</h3><br>
<p>During the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until the onset of World War I, Native American performers were major draws and money-makers. Millions of visitors at world fairs, exhibitions and parades throughout the United States and Europe observed Native Americans portrayed as the vanishing race, exotic peoples and objects of modern comparative anthropology. Reformists Progressives fought a war of words and images against popular Wild West shows at world fairs, expositions and parades.</p><br>
<p>In 1893, the fight for the image of the Native American began when Reformist Progressives pressured organizers to deny William F. ("Buffalo Bill") Cody a place at the Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois. Instead, a feature of the Exposition was a model Indian school and an ethnological Indian village supported by the Bureau of Indian Affairs.</p><br>
<p>In style, Buffalo Bill established a fourteen-acre swath of land near the main entrance of the fair for "Buffalo Bills Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World" where he erected stands around an arena large enough to seat 18,000 spectators. Seventy-four "Wild Westers" from Pine Ridge, South Dakota, who had recently returned from a tour of Europe, were contracted to perform in the show. Cody also brought in an additional one hundred Wild Westers directly from Pine Ridge, Standing Rock and Rosebud reservations, who visited the Exposition at his expense and participated in the opening ceremonies. Over two million patrons saw Buffalo Bills Wild West outside the Columbian Exposition, often mistaking the show as an integral part to the Worlds Fair. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition of 1904, known as the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was the last of the great fairs in the United States before World War I. Organizers wanted their exotic people to be interpreted by anthropologists in a modern scientific manner portraying contrasting images of Native Americans. A Congress of Indian Educators was convened and Oglala Lakota Chief Red Cloud and Chief Blue Horse, both eighty-three years old, and the best-known Native America orators at the St. Louis Worlds Fair, spoke to audiences. A model Indian School was placed on top on a hill so Indians below could see their future as portrayed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. On one side of the school, "blanket Indians", men or women who refused to relinquish their native dress and customs, demonstrated their artistry inside the school on one side of the hall. On the other side, Indian boarding school students displayed their achievements in reading, writing, music, dancing, trades and arts. The Carlisle Indian Band performed at the Pennsylvania state pavilion, and the Haskell Indian Band performed a mixture of classical, popular music and Dennison Wheelocks Aboriginal Suite which included Native dances and war whoops by band members.</p><br>
<h3>The Inaugural Parade of President Theodore Roosevelt, 1905</h3><br>
<p>On March 4, 1905, Wild Westers and Carlisle portrayed contrasting images of Native Americans at the First Inaugural Parade of 26th President Theodore Roosevelt. Six famous Native American Chiefs, Geronimo (Chiricahua Apache), Quanah Parker (Comanche), Buckskin Charlie (Ute), American Horse (Oglala Lakota), Hollow Horn Bear (Sicangu Lakota) and Little Plume (Blackfeet), met in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, for dress rehearsal on the main street to practice for the parade in Washington.</p><br>
<p>Theodore Roosevelt sat in the presidential box with his wife, daughter and other distinguished guests, and watched West Point army cadets and the famed 7th Cavalry, Gen. George A. Custers former unit that fought at the Battle of Little Bighorn, march down Pennsylvania Avenue. When the contingent of "Wild Westers" and the "Carlisle Cadets" and Band came into view, President Roosevelt vigorously waved his hat and all in the Presidents box rose to their feet to behold the powerful imagery of the six famous Native American Chiefs on horseback adorned with face paint and elaborate feather headdresses, followed by the 46-piece Carlisle Indian Industrial School Band and a brigade of 350 Carlisle Cadets at arms. Leading the group was "Geronimo", of the Apache, in his regalia including war paint, sitting astride his horse, also in war paint, in the center of the street. It was reported that: "The Chiefs created a sensation, eclipsing the intended symbolism of a formation of 350 uniformed Carlisle students led by a marching band," and "all eyes were on the six chiefs, the cadets received passing mention in the newspapers and nobody bothered to photograph them." The Carlisle Band led by Claude M. Stauffer and cadets led by Captain William A. Mercer, superintendent of the school and member of the 7th Cavalry.</p><br>
<h3>Carlisle "Wild Westers"</h3><br>
<p>The Carlisle Indian School and "Wild Westing" were portals to education, opportunity and hope, and came at a time when the Lakota people were depressed, impoverished, harassed and confined. Wild Westers from Pine Ridge enrolled their children at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School from its beginning in 1879 until its closure in 1918. Known as "Show Indians", Oglala Wild Westers referred to themselves as Oskate Wicasa, a colloquialism meaning "one who performs" or "Show Man", a title of great honor and respect. Its usage began in the early days of the Buffalo Bill Cody Wild West shows. The phrase "Show Indians" likely originated among newspaper reporters and editorial writers as early as 1891. By 1893 the term appears frequently in Bureau of Indian Affairs correspondence. Some believe that the term is derogatory describing the "phenomenon of Native exploitation and romanticization in the USA" Arguments of a similar nature were made by the Bureau of Indian Affairs during the popularity of Wild West shows in the United States and Europe. Many Carlisle students, mostly Lakota, had parents, family and friends who were Wild Westers. Ben American Horse and Samuel American Horse, sons of Oglala Lakota Chief American Horse from the Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota, attended Carlisle and went "Wild Westing" with their father. Often entire families worked together, and the tradition of the "Wild Wester" community is not unlike the tradition of circus families and communities. Carlisle Wild Westers were attracted by the adventure, pay and opportunity and were hired as performers, chaperons, interpreters and recruiters.</p><br>
<p>Frank C. Goings, the recruiting agent for "Buffalo Bill" Cody and other "Wild West" shows at Pine Ridge, South Dakota, was a Carlisle "Wild Wester" with experience as a performer, interpreter and chaperon. Goings carefully chose the famous chiefs, the best dancers, the best singers, and the best riders; screened for performers willing to be away from home for extended periods of time and coordinated travel, room and board. He traveled with his wife and children, and for many years toured Europe and the United States with "Buffalo Bill&#39;s Wild West", Miller Brothers 101 Ranch and the Sells Floto Circus.</p><br>
<h2>Closing and legacy</h2><br>
<h3>Pratt&#39;s retirement</h3><br>
<p>Pratt came into conflict with government officials over his outspoken views on the need for Native Americans to assimilate. In 1903, Pratt denounced the Indian Bureau and the reservation system as a hindrance to the civilization and assimilation of Native Americans ("American Indians"). "Better, far better for the Indians," he said, "had there never been a Bureau." As a result of the controversy, Pratt was forced to retire as superintendent of Carlisle after 24 years and was placed on the retired list as a brigadier general in the United States Army. In retirement, Pratt and his wife Anna Laura traveled widely, often visiting former students and lecturing and still writing on Indian issues. Pratt continued to advocate for Native American rights until his death at the age of 83 on March 15, 1924, at the old Letterman Army Hospital in the Presidio of San Francisco, at San Francisco, California. Pratt&#39;s modest granite memorial stone in Arlington National Cemetery across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. says "Erected In Loving Memory by his Students and Other Indians."</p><br>
<h3>Assimilation efforts at Carlisle</h3><br>
<p>Carlisle was created with the explicit goal of assimilating Native Americans into mainstream European-American culture. "The goal of acculturation was to be accomplished by "total immersion" in the white mans world." Pratt founded Carlisle to immerse Native American children in mainstream culture and teach them English, new skills, and customs. Pratts slogan was "to civilize the Indian, get him into civilization. To keep him civilized, let him stay." Pratt&#39;s approach was harsh but an alternative to the tendency towards physical extermination of Native Americans.</p><br>
<p>While assimilation was a crucial part of the Carlisle Schools plan, it was also looked at controversially by some Native Americans who felt they were pushed to marry interracially. As Katherine Ellinghaus notes in her book, "There was considerable resistance to the schools unspoken policy regarding interracial marriage." On the Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center, this also proves evident. Isaiah Wasaquam, a member of the Ottawa Nation, echoes controversy in an application to Carlisle when he answers a question about his marriage proudly, "it has been nearly ten years since I married my Race." Research suggests this was a subtle hint to the schools officials to prove that they have married their own race. Most likely, this backlash by the Natives is due to the fact that the school was trying to, "take the Indian out of the man." Additionally, Cathleen Cahill proves that the Carlisle School matches the time in history that enveloped such assimilation, "During the closing decades of the nineteenth century, the federal governments strategies for changing Indian societies tacitly encouraged interracial marriage." Although this unwritten rule of interracial marriage was never proven, the conversation remains ongoing regarding the controversiality of this occurrence.</p><br>
<p>All children who attended Carlisle were subjected to "militaristic regimentation and disciplines," such as cutting of their hair, changing their dress, diets, names, and learning unfamiliar conceptions of space and time. They were also forced to let go of their cultural gender roles, and assimilate to what white men believed they should do in society. Native women traditionally held important political, social and economic power within their communities, as most Native cultures promoted gender equality, and this was disrupted at Carlisle.</p><br>
<p>The Documents Concerning Mary Welch, from the Carlisle Indian Digital Resource Center, provide validation of Welchs completion of seven years at the Carlisle school, and say that she would make a fine housekeeper or seamstress. However, Welch was a member of the Cherokee Nation, whose women are known for speaking out against the colonization and expansionism of American settlers. Some Cherokee women also attained the rank of chief. "They were not, as Euro-Americans imagine, merely chattel, servants to man, wives, and mothers." It wasnt uncommon for Native women to be warriors, statesmen, religious leaders, and shamans (the equivalent of doctors). Carlisle instructors forced the women to learn the industrial and domestic skills appropriate to European American gender roles. For many of them, this cultural assault led to confusion, alienation, homesickness and resentment.</p><br>
<p>During the first few weeks at Carlisle, when the Lakota and Dakota greatly outnumbered all other tribes, it was discovered that Cheyennes and Kiowas were learning to speak Lakota and Dakota. After that, English was the only language permitted on the campus. Dormitory rooms held three or four each, and no two students from the same tribe were permitted to room together. The plan helped in the rapid acquisition of English, and although some were hereditary foes, Pratt believed the Indian students to be less inclined to quarrel than most white children. However, there were consequences. In 1879, Chief Blue Horses son Baldwin Blue Horse, age 12, was in the first group of Oglala Lakota students to arrive at Carlisle. In 1888, Chief Blue Horse met with Baldwin at a performance of Buffalo Bills Wild West in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and spoke through an interpreter. Later Luther Standing Bear was called to the superintendents office and asked him if it was a good idea to get some Indian boys from the reservation and put them in school with white boys, expecting that the Indian boys would learn faster by such an association. Luther agreed that it might be a good plan, so a permit was received from Washington. Sixty boys from Pine Ridge were mixed with 60 European-American boys. Teachers had hoped the Indians would learn the English language faster by this arrangement. "But lo and behold, the white boys began learning the Sioux language." The program was discontinued. Some Native Americans are angry about painful Indian boarding school experiences and Pratts Progressive Reformist views on assimilation have been condemned.</p><br>
<h3>Back on the reservation</h3><br>
<p>One student, Luther Standing Bear got a mixed reception at home on the reservation. Some were proud of his achievements while others did not like that he had "become a white man."</p><br>
<p>He was happy to be home, and some of his relatives said that he "looked like a white boy dressed in eastern clothes." Luther was proud to be compared to a white boy, but some would not shake his hand. Some returning Carlisle students had become ashamed of their culture, while some tried to pretend that they did not speak Lakota. The difficulties of returning Carlisle I.I.S. students disturbed white educators. Returning Carlisle students found themselves between two cultures, not accepted by either. Some rejected their educational experiences and "returned to the blanket," casting off "white ways&quot others found it more convenient and satisfying to remain in white society. Most adjusted to both worlds.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, Standing Bear decided to leave the reservation. He was no longer willing to endure existence under the control of an overseer. Luther sold his land allotment and bought a house in Sioux City, Iowa, where he worked as a clerk in a wholesale firm. After a brief job doing rodeo performances with Miller Brothers 101 Ranch in Oklahoma (former old Indian Territory), he moved to California to seek full-time employment in the motion picture industry. While Standing Bear left the confinement of the reservation, he continued his responsibilities as an Oglala Lakota chief, fighting to preserve Lakota heritage and sovereignty through public education.</p><br>
<h3>Deaths from infectious diseases</h3><br>
<p>Exposure to "white men&#39;s diseases", especially tuberculosis, was a major health problem on the reservation as well as the East. During the years of operation, hundreds of children died at Carlisle. Most died from infectious diseases common in the early 20th century that killed many children. More than 180 students were buried in the Carlisle Indian School Cemetery. The bodies of most who died were sent to their families. Children who died of tuberculosis were buried at the school, as people were worried about contagion.</p><br>
<h2>20th century</h2><br>
<p>Beginning in the early 1900s, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School began to diminish in relevance. With growth of more localized private and government reservation schools in the West, children no longer needed to travel to a distant Eastern school in Pennsylvania. Successive superintendents at Carlisle Indian School after Pratt, Captain William A. Mercer (1904-1908), Moses Friedman (1908-1914), Oscar Lipps (1914-1917) and John Francis Jr. (1917–1918), were besieged by faculty debate and pressures from the Indian Commission and the USA Army.</p><br>
<p>Around 1913, rumors circulated at Carlisle that there was a movement to close the school. In 1914, a Congressional investigation focused on management at the School and the out-sized role played by athletics. Pop Warner, Superintendent Moses Friedman and Bandmaster C.M. Stauffer were dismissed. After the hearings, attendance dwindled and morale declined. The reason for Carlisle&#39;s existence had passed. When the United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, there was an additional reduction of enrollment. Many Carlisle I.I.S. alumni and students served in the USA military during World War I. On the morning of September 1, 1918, a transfer ceremony took place. The American flag was lowered for the last time at the Carlisle Indian School and presented to Major A.C. Backmeyer, who raised it again over the new USA Army Base Hospital Number 31, a pioneering new type of rehabilitation hospital to treat soldiers wounded in World War I. Remaining pupils were sent home or to other off-reservation boarding schools in the United States. In the spring of 1951, the USA Army War College, founded 1901, senior educational institution of the USA Army, relocated to the old Carlisle Barracks. In 1961, the complex was designated a National Historic Landmark (NHL), and it was expanded in 1984 to include 24 buildings and structures over 24.5 acres.</p><br>
<p>From 1879 until 1918, more than 10,000 Native American children from 140 tribes had attended Carlisle. The school&#39;s 1911 Annual Report included the results of an employment survey of 532 graduates and 3619 other ex-students. Tribes with the largest number of students included the Lakota, Ojibwe, Cherokee, Apache, Cheyenne, Alaska Native, Iroquois Seneca, and Oneida. The Carlisle Indian School exemplified Progressive Era values. Some believed Carlisle provided an excellent education.</p><br>
<p>In the late 20th century, there was a reexamination of assimilation efforts by the USA government, and practices at Carlisle and other similar schools served as the basis for some of that reexamination. Some Native Americans criticized the break-up of their families for years as students were sent off to such boarding schools and were seen as efforts to force children away from their families cultures. Pratts views on assimilation also were criticized.</p><br>
<p>On December 9, 2024, President Joe Biden designated the site coextensive with the national historic landmark as a national monument. The School Road Gateposts will be transferred from the Army to the National Park Service, and the agencies will cooperatively manage the monument. Indian tribes will have co-stewardship of the monument.</p><br>
<h2>Contemporary institutions</h2><br>
<p>The Carlisle Indian Industrial School National Historic Landmark is partly within Carlisle Borough and partially within North Middleton Township.</p><br>
<h3>USA Army Heritage and Education Center</h3><br>
<p>The USA Army Heritage and Education Center (USAHEC), in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, is the USA Army&#39;s primary historical research facility. With its oldest part established in 1967, and later reorganized in 1999 and reorganized again in 2013, the center consists of the USA Army Military History Institute (USAM.H.I.) (of 1967), the Army Heritage Museum (A.H.M.), the Digital Archives Division, the Historical Services Division, the Research and Education Services, and the USAH.E.C. Staff. The USA Army Heritage and Education Center is part of the United States Army War College, but has its own 56-acre (230,000 m2) campus in Middlesex Township nearby the Carlisle Barracks.</p><br>
<h3>USA Army War College—Jim Thorpe Sports Day</h3><br>
<p>Jim Thorpe Sports Day is the biggest annual extracurricular event at the USA Army War College. Begun in 1974, the competition in ten sports is among the militarys senior service schools, the Army, Navy and Air Force academies. The sports are played at Carlisle Barracks historic Indian Field, where Jim Thorpe once displayed the teamwork, discipline and physical fitness that inspires the name of the athletic games at Carlisle.</p><br>
<h3>Cumberland County Historical Society</h3><br>
<p>The Carlisle Indian Industrial School is remembered and honored by the people of the Borough of Carlisle. The Cumberland County Historical Society in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, houses an extensive collection of archival materials and photographs from the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. Among the items are 39 years of weekly and monthly school newspapers, musical and athletic programs, brochures, letters, catalogs and the annual reports to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs. The society has over 3,000 photographs and recorded oral histories from school alumni, relatives of former students and local townspeople. In 2000, the Cumberland County 250th Anniversary Committee worked with Native Americans from numerous tribes and non-natives to organize a "Pow-wow" on Memorial Day to commemorate the unique Carlisle Indian School, the students and their stories.</p><br>
<h3>Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center</h3><br>
<p>The Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center is a publicly accessible digital archive of material pertaining to the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. The project is run by the of the at Dickinson College, and by the. Additionally, the project is advised by a number of subject-area experts and cultural advisers. The project seeks to aggregate collections of primary source materials held at various repositories, including the National Archives and Records Administration, the Cumberland County Historical Society, and the Archives and Special Collections at Dickinson College.</p><br>
<h2>In media</h2><br>
<p>Band and Battalion of the USA Indian School is a silent film documentary made on April 30, 1901, by American Mutoscope and Biograph Company (AM&B) made in Carlisle. The cinematographer Arthur Marvin depicts a parade drill by the cadet corps of the American Indian School which includes many representatives of the Native American tribes. In 1902 Marvin produced another documentary, "Club Swinging at Carlisle Indian School" for AM&B.</p><br>
<p>Carlisle Indian Industrial School was depicted in the 1951 movie classic Jim Thorpe – All-American, a biographical feature film produced by Warner Bros. and directed by Michael Curtiz, honoring Jim Thorpe. Historian Mark Rubinfeld says, "The movie stands out as an important cultural document in both American and Native American history." The film starred Burt Lancaster as Thorpe and featured some archival footage of both the 1912 and 1932 Summer Olympics, as well as other footage of the real Thorpe (seen in long shots). Charles Bickford played the famed football coach - Glenn Scobey ("Pop") Warner, who was Thorpes longtime mentor. Bickford also narrated the film, which told of Thorpes athletic rise and fall, ending on an upbeat note when he was asked by a group of boys to coach them. Phyllis Thaxter portrayed Thorpe&#39;s first wife. Warner Bros. used a number of contract players in the film, as well as a few Native American actors.</p><br>
<p>Part of the 2005 mini-series on cable TV&#39;s Turner Network Television, Into the West, takes place at the school.</p><br>
<p>The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) documentary In the White Man&#39;s Image (1992) tells the story of Richard Pratt and the founding of the Carlisle School. It was directed by Christine Lesiak, and part of the American history documentary series The American Experience, also produced by PBS. The documentary features interviews with Indian educators N. Scott Momaday and Henrietta Mann, as well as frontier historian Robert M. Utley and Professor of American studies Lonna Malmsheimer.</p><br>
<p>The "Dear America" Series young adult fictional diary, My Heart Is on the Ground by Ann Rinaldi (1999), tells the story of Nannie Little Rose, a Sioux girl sent to the school in 1880.</p><br>
<p>Numerous additional works address the stories of former residents of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School and other Native American boarding schools in Western New York and Canadian Indian residential school system such as Thomas Indian School, and Mohawk Institute Residential School in Brantford, Southern Ontario; the impact of those and similar schools on their communities; and community efforts to overcome those impacts. Examples include: the film Unseen Tears: A Documentary on Boarding School Survivors, Ronald James Douglas graduate thesis titled Documenting ethnic cleansing in North America: Creating Unseen Tears, and the Legacy of Hope Foundations online media collection:</p><br>
<p>The memoir Apple: Skin to the Core by Eric Gansworth is a book in poems and images documenting the authors life as well as that of his extended Family. Three of the authors grandparents attended Carlisle Indian Industrial School and the book details both the experience and the aftermath of their attendance there. Gansworth is an enrolled member of the Onondaga Nation, born and raised among the Tuscaroras. The book was in the longlist of the National Book Awards 2020 for Young People&#39;s Literature.</p><br>
<p>A Council of Dolls is a historical fiction novel based on the author Mona Susan Power&#39;s family history with boarding schools. Three generations of Dakota women grapple with the effects of being forced to attend Carlisle Indian Industrial School, where they are stripped of their cultural identity and suffer abuse.</p><br>
<p>The African Meeting House, also known variously as First African Baptist Church, First Independent Baptist Church and the Belknap Street Church, was built in 1806 and is now the oldest black church edifice still standing in the United States. A Baptist congregation led by Reverend Thomas Paul built the church. The church also established a school, at first holding classes in its basement. After serving most of the nineteenth century as a church, it then served as a synagogue until 1972 when it was purchased for the Museum of African American History. It is located in the Beacon Hill neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, adjacent to the historically Black American Abiel Smith School, now also part of the museum. It is a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Church</h3><br>
<p>Before 1805, although black Bostonians could attend white churches, they generally faced discrimination. They were assigned seats only in the balconies and were not given voting privileges.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Paul, a Black American preacher from New Hampshire, led worship meetings for blacks at Faneuil Hall. Paul, with twenty of his members, officially formed the First African Baptist Church on August 8, 1805. In the same year, land was purchased for a building. The African Meeting House, as it came to be commonly called, was completed the next year. At the public dedication on December 6, 1806, the first-floor pews were reserved for all those "benevolently disposed to the Africans," while the black members sat in the balcony of their new meeting house.</p><br>
<h4>Ministers</h4><br>
<p>Thomas Paul, c. 1805–1829</p><br>
<p>John Peck, c. 1830</p><br>
<p>Washington Christian, c. 1831</p><br>
<p>Thomas Ritchie, c. 1832</p><br>
<p>Samuel Gooch, c. 1833–1834</p><br>
<p>John Given, c. 1835</p><br>
<p>Armstrong W. Archer, c. 1837</p><br>
<p>George H. Black, c. 1838–1840</p><br>
<p>John T. Raymond, c. 1841–1845</p><br>
<p>William B. Serrington, c. 1848–1849</p><br>
<p>William Thompson, c. 1851–1853</p><br>
<p>Thomas Henson, c. 1856–1858</p><br>
<p>J. Sella Martin, c. 1860–1862</p><br>
<p>H. H. White, c. 1864</p><br>
<h3>School (1806–1835)</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1800s, Primus Hall had established a school in his home. He sought funding from the community, including Black American sailors, to pay for expenses to run the school. Unsuccessful in attempts to establish a public school with the city of Boston in 1800, he moved his school to the African Meeting House by 1806. Hall continued fund-raising to support the Black American school until 1835.</p><br>
<p>Besides inspiring Boston&#39;s Black Americans to pursue justice and quality in education, the school offered them opportunities for employment and economic growth, which in turn provided funds for future generations of Black American Bostonians to pursue higher education.</p><br>
<p>The Abiel Smith School was built in 1834 following the donation of $2,000 (~$ in ) by Abiel Smith. The primary and grammar school was the first building built as a public school for Black Americans in the country. In 1835, all Black American children in Boston were assigned to the Smith school, which replaced the basement school in the African Meeting House.</p><br>
<h3>Civic activities (1832 and Civil War)</h3><br>
<p>The African Meeting House became known as the Black Faneuil Hall during the abolitionist movement. On January 6, 1832, William Lloyd Garrison founded the New England Anti-Slavery Society here. During the Civil War, Frederick Douglass and others recruited soldiers here for the 54th and 55th Massachusetts Regiments.</p><br>
<h3>Synagogue (late 19th century – 1972)</h3><br>
<p>At the end of the 19th century, when the black community began to migrate to the South End and Roxbury, the building was sold to a Jewish congregation, Anshei Lubavitch. They were the new immigrants in the city and living on Beacon Hill and in the North End. It served as a synagogue until 1972, when it was acquired by the Museum of African American History and adapted as a museum.</p><br>
<h3>Museum (c. 1972–present)</h3><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974.</p><br>
<p>The African Meeting House houses the Museum of African American History, which is a museum "dedicated to preserving, conserving and accurately interpreting the contributions of African Americans in New England from the colonial period through the 19th century," according to the museum&#39;s website. The African Meeting House is open to the public. This site is part of Boston African American National Historic Site.</p><br>
<p>Adjacent to the African Meeting House, is the Education and Technology Center. The Trust for Public Land assisted in the acquisition of the building when the museum needed space to expand.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and remodeling</h2><br>
<p>Funds for the African Meeting House were raised in both the white and black communities. Cato Gardner, a native of Africa, was responsible for raising more than $1,500 toward the total $7,700 to complete the meeting house. A commemorative inscription above the front door reads: "Cato Gardner, first Promoter of this Building 1806." Scipio and Sylvia Dalton also helped organize and raise money to build the church.</p><br>
<p>Although the building committee was able to secure $2,500 for the church, the congregation and the committee were compelled to ask the Massachusetts legislation for funds to complete construction. This funding request required an accounting of persons who worked on and supplied materials to the construction project and documents that both African-American and white laborers contributed to it. This accounting lists, for example, that the white carpenter Amos Penniman worked on the African Meeting House. This research has not yet located this document, but it does substantiate that Abel Barbadoes did masonry work on the building, as Chloe Thomas, then a resident of the Home for Aged Colored Women, told George Ruffin in 1883:</p><br>
<p>I heard from the lips of some of our most honored fathers, Cato Gardner, Father Primus Hall, Hamlet Earl, Scipio Dalton, Peter G. Smith, G.H. Holmes, that George Holmes made the first hod to carry bricks and mortar that was ever used in Boston. He invented it for the purpose of carrying bricks and mortar to build our meeting house with as he was a mason and calculated to do his part to the best of his ability. And Boston Smith, father of P.G. Smith, with the rest of his devoted brothers, was anxious to do all in his power. As Boston Smith was a master builder, he led the carpentry department...Abel Barbadoes, being a master mason also assisted. He was the father of Mrs. Catherine Barbadoes at 27 Myrtle Street.</p><br>
<p>The façade of the African Meeting House is an adaptation of a design for a townhouse published by Boston architect Asher Benjamin. In addition to its religious and educational activities, the meeting house became a place for celebrations and political and anti-slavery meetings. The African Meeting House was remodeled by the congregation in the 1850s.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers is a greenhouse and botanical garden that houses a collection of rare and exotic plants in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California. With construction having been completed in 1879, it is the oldest building in the park. It was one of the first municipal conservatories constructed in the United States and is the oldest remaining municipal wooden conservatory in the country. For these distinctions and for its associated historical, architectural, and engineering merits, the Conservatory of Flowers is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the California Register of Historical Places. It is a California Historical Landmark and a San Francisco Designated Landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers is now one of the three locations of the Gardens of Golden Gate Park, along with the Japanese Tea Garden and the San Francisco Botanical Garden.</p><br>
<h2>Architectural description</h2><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers is an elaborate Victorian greenhouse with a central dome rising nearly 60 ft high and arch-shaped wings extending from it for an overall length of 240 ft. The building sits atop a gentle slope overlooking Conservatory Valley. The structural members are articulated through one predominant form, a four-centered or Tudor arch.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers consists of a wood structural skeleton with glass walls set on a raised masonry foundation. The entire structure has a shallow E-shaped plan that is oriented along an east–west axis. The central 60 ft high pavilion is entered through a one-story, glassed-in vestibule with a gable roof on the south side of the pavilion. Flanking the rotunda to the east and west are one-story, symmetrical wings framed by wood arches. Each wing is L-shaped in plan, with cupolas adorning the intersection of the two segments.</p><br>
<p>The octagonal pavilion supports an arched roof that is, in turn, surmounted by a clerestory and dome. The clerestory is supported by eight free-standing, wood-clad, cast-iron columns located within the rotunda and grouped in pairs. Projecting from the pavilion roof on the east, west, and south elevations are dormer windows with peak roofs. Between major arched structural framing members are wood muntins that hold the glass lights on their sides. The lights lap one over one another like shingles and follow the curve of the arches.</p><br>
<p>The construction of each arch is aesthetically appealing in its simplicity, but also structurally clever in that it takes maximum advantage of wood as a building material while overcoming its inherent structural shortcomings. From a structural perspective, the arch design uses the mechanical properties of the material. Wood is strongest along the length of the grain and weakest along the end grain. The use of short arch components with shallow radii minimized the amount of weaker-end grain exposed to structural forces. The assembly of the arch with several small pieces of wood, the shapes of which are identical from arch to arch, was efficient. It allowed the fabricator to set machines with guides and templates so that cutting the multiple-arch components was a simple task. Furthermore, the design required little material, since each individual arch component has only a shallow radius. Moreover, by using relatively narrow widths of lumber, the chance of warping was minimized. Finally, there was an efficiency realized in transportation, as the small size of the arch components allowed them to be easily stored and shipped.</p><br>
<p>The structural wood arches and their method of construction, along with the decorative woodwork and unique lapped glazing, define the character of the conservatory. The major character-defining elements consist of ornamental and structural woodwork, including the method of fabrication used for the arches, the lapped glazing system, the ventilation system, and the building&#39;s siting and exterior landscaping.</p><br>
<h3>Rooms within the conservatory</h3><br>
<p>Potted Plants Gallery: The Potted Plant room holds various unusual plants. The pots and urns that hold the plants were created by various artists from around the world. This room is maintained at hotter temperatures to accommodate the needs of the plants. The Potted Plant Gallery follows Victorian architecture and the 19th century idea of displaying tropical plants in non-tropical parts of the world.</p><br>
<p>Lowlands Gallery: The Lowlands Gallery contains plants from the tropics of South America (near the equator). This room also contains plants that produce more well-known products such as bananas, coffee, and cinnamon. The room is usually kept around 70 °F with a very high level of humidity through the use of a frequent system of misters, as the Lowland Tropics typically get 100–400 inches of rain each year and are located in elevations from 3,000 feet to sea level.</p><br>
<p>Highlands Gallery: The Highlands Gallery contains native plants from South to Central America. Its plants collect moisture from the air, and from water that drips from the trees above. Due to its drastically higher elevation (3,000–10,000 feet), this room is kept cooler than the Lowlands Gallery (around 65 °F) and is kept at a very high level of humidity through the use of a misting system, as the Highland Tropics typically receive 200 inches of rain per year.</p><br>
<p>Aquatics Gallery: The Aquatic Plants room is similar in conditions as those near the Amazon River. As such, many carnivorous plants that thrive in hot, humid environments grow throughout the room. The soil is mostly lacking in nutrients and the carnivorous plants are kept very moist by condensation of the water in the extremely humid air. The room also contains two large ponds, one holding 9,000 gallons of water, and the other holding half as much. Both ponds are kept at 83 °F and are maintained using beneficial bacteria, filters, water heaters, and solutions to prevent algae buildup.</p><br>
<h2>History and construction</h2><br>
<h3>Historical context</h3><br>
<p>In both Europe and America, the 19th century brought increased urbanization and industrialization. In response, city governments began providing open spaces and natural settings for public use. The profession of Landscape Architecture expanded during the later part of the 19th century, and park design became a large part of this new profession&#39;s repertoire. In addition, a significant outgrowth of the need for natural surroundings in urban contexts was an increase in the study of plant sciences during this period, both by professionals and amateurs. A building type called the glasshouse or conservatory took shape, in which the city-dweller could view masterpieces of the plant world otherwise unavailable in urban environments. Municipalities and individuals spent a great deal of time and money to construct these building types, which became known as "theaters of nature."</p><br>
<p>The 19th-century glasshouse grew out of the city-dwellers desire to bring nature and the natural into urban life. These structures became popular in urban, public, and semi-public settings. As these structures gained popularity in Europe, greenhouses began to be constructed on larger scales and of stronger materials. One engineer, Joseph Paxton (1803–1865), had an enormous effect on the development of the conservatory building type. His structures called for a system of glass and metal roof construction, whereas past structures had typically been constructed of wood and glass. His choice of materials allowed designs for glasshouses of substantially larger scales. His best known example is the Crystal Palace at the worlds first International Exhibition in 1851. Elsewhere in Europe, Hector Horeau designed several conservatories of glass and iron, such as the Lyons Conservatory in France of 1847. In Germany, August von Voit designed the Great Palm House in the Old Botanical Gardens in Munich in 1860. Another prominent example is the Palm House in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in London.</p><br>
<p>The increased use of glass and iron as building materials also impacted the development of the glasshouse. The decades following the construction of the Crystal Palace saw a decline in the use of wood structural members for the construction of large European greenhouses or conservatories. Many manufacturers had found that the humid heat necessary to successfully propagate numerous plant varieties often destroyed wood structural members in short periods of time.</p><br>
<p>Following European fashions, wealthy Americans began to construct conservatories in the mid-19th century on private estates.</p><br>
<p>These structures were enjoyed by a broad cross-section of the public and were popular throughout California&#39;s early history. Structures of various shapes and sizes were built in Victorian California, ranging from an attached and glassed-in wing for a residence, to a great domed or compartmentalized, detached glasshouse. Examples of wealthy Californians who built conservatories in their private estates include: A.K.P. (Albion Keith Paris) Harmon, for his Oakland Lake Merritt Estate (which later became Lakeside Park); Frederick Delger; Frank M. Smith; Darius Ogden Mills (Millbrae); and Luther Burbank, for his own experiments with plant germination (Santa Rosa). These examples all used wood as structural members.</p><br>
<h3>The conservatory</h3><br>
<p>The material for two 12,000 ft&sup2; conservatories modeled after Kew Gardens in London was originally bought in 1876 by James Lick, an eccentric businessman, piano maker, and successful real estate investor who was a patron of the sciences. It is believed that Lick purchased the materials from Lord & Burnham, a manufacturer of greenhouses located in upstate New York, and these were sent in kit form, to be assembled on site. The order is said to have been the company&#39;s first big sale. The 33 tons of glass were sent by boat &ndash; most probably one chartered by Lick &ndash; from New York, around Cape Horn to San Francisco Bay.</p><br>
<p>The conservatories were intended for the City of San Jose, where Lick had built a mansion surrounded by exotic plants imported from South America and around the world. Lick died in 1876 before constructing the conservatory on his estate, and it was put up for sale by his trustees. The material ended up in the possession of various beneficiaries of Lick&#39;s will, the California Academy of Sciences, and the Society of California Pioneers. In 1877, the Society sold it to "a group of 27 prominent San Franciscans and local philanthropists", which included Leland Stanford, Charles Crocker, Claus Spreckels and former mayor William Alvord, who offered it as a gift to the City of San Francisco for use in Golden Gate Park, which was then under construction. The Parks Commission accepted the gift and in 1878 hired Lord & Burnham to supervise the erection of the structure. It is believed that the glass for the second conservatory may have been used in other structures in the park. Records indicate the construction costs were roughly $30,000.</p><br>
<p>The specific architect of the greenhouse is not known for certain. The San Francisco Public Library holds a document entitled Information about Samuel Charles Bugbee, written by a relative, Arthur S. Bugbee, in 1957. It indicates that the architect Samual Charles Bugbee, whose works included the homes of Leland Stanford and Charles Crocker and the Mendocino Presbyterian Church, may also have designed the Conservatory of Flowers.</p><br>
<p>Once open in April 1879, the Conservatory contained a large variety of rare and tropical plants, including a giant water lily (Victoria regia), which at the time was the only known specimen in the United States.</p><br>
<h4>Wood vs. iron</h4><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers was constructed of wood rather than iron, as was common in the later part of the 19th century, because wood was plentiful in the west. Cast-iron greenhouses do not appear to have been widely manufactured in America until the 1880s. Materials analysis suggests that the structural wooden members of the Conservatory greenhouse were constructed of indigenous California Coast Redwood.</p><br>
<p>Other known American wood conservatories of this period included Lyndhurst in Tarrytown, New York. The Lyndhurst Conservatory, constructed in 1869 of wood by the estates first owner George Merritt, was destroyed by fire in 1880. The estates second owner, Jay Gould, rebuilt the conservatory in 1881, hiring the local firm of Lord & Burnham &ndash; which had moved from upstate New York to Irvington, New York to be closer to its Hudson Valley clientele, to manufacture his greenhouse. The 1881 Lord & Burnham structure was composed primarily of cast iron and glass. The Gould Conservatory at Lyndhurst is credited with being the first conservatory of iron in the United States and with inspiring subsequent structures of the same material. After their success with the Gould Conservatory of 1881, Lord & Burnham and other conservatory manufacturers apparently produced few large conservatories of wood.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory is now the oldest wood-and-glass conservatory in North America open to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Statistics</h3><br>
<p>The conservatory has 16,800 window panes. The upper dome of the conservatory weighs 14.5 tonnes.</p><br>
<p>Langley&#39;s San Francisco Directory for the Year Commencing April 1879 discussed the construction of the Conservatory of Flowers:</p><br>
<p>The whole building required in its construction twenty-six thousand square feet of glass weighing twenty-five tons, and two tones of putty. It is a marvel of architectural beauty, surpassing in this respect any similar construction in the United States, and is only equaled in size by the Government Conservatory of in the Horticultural Gardens at Washington.</p><br>
<h2>Repair campaigns</h2><br>
<p>Through its life, the Conservatory of Flowers has undergone several repair campaigns. The Palm Room, located in the center of the building, was seriously damaged in a fire in 1883. Its dome was completely reconstructed at this time. It sustained little damage following the 1906 earthquake. After a second fire damaged the structure in 1918, repairs were made as needed but were not thoroughly documented. No significant documented repairs to the building took place again until sometime after World War II, when certain portions of the wood work, including structural elements, were replaced. In 1959, wood windows at the base of the glazed walls at the buildings perimeter were infilled with concrete panels that were cast to match the profiles of the original construction. In 1964–65, the clerestory of the Palm Room underwent reconstruction. The columns, lintels, and sills in this area were replaced by pressure-treated redwood. Five hundred lineal feet of the exterior cap molding, which covers the arches, was replaced at this time as well. Between 1978 and 1982, major repairs were performed on deteriorated woodwork. The areas that were repaired during this time did not overlap the 1960s repairs to the clerestory.</p><br>
<p>In general, it appears that after 1914 most maintenance work was undertaken only when conditions presented a safety hazard, mechanical systems were in need of repair, or the building became extremely unsightly. Lack of scheduled maintenance affects the performance of building materials. Wood, in particular, requires proper maintenance of paint coatings to control the development of rot. In this building, it is important to maintain the condition of the interior, as well as exterior, coatings because of the humid indoor environment. Also necessary is the maintenance of waterproofing details, such as flashing, to prevent water from accumulating in concealed areas. It is therefore not surprising that rot developed in the building, and significant repairs to the wood elements of the building were necessary over time, given its somewhat irregular maintenance history.</p><br>
<h3>Early years</h3><br>
<p>In the first years after the conservatory was constructed, ongoing maintenance was necessary for both the structure and its collection. This included repairing the boilers in the furnace room, the installation of ventilators, and the installation of a cement floor. At this point, the conservatory held over 9,000 plants of various kinds.</p><br>
<h3>1883 fire</h3><br>
<p>In January 1883, the conservatory caught fire, with the main dome sustaining the heaviest damage. Evidence suggests the fire started as the result of intense heat generated by the furnace. Charles Crocker donated $10,000 toward the repair fund. The reconstructed dome included the addition of a clerestory. The original dome was saucer-shaped, while the replacement dome was more classically domical in its appearance, and was raised by 6 ft. The other major change was the finial, which prior to the fire consisted of an eagle figure, whereas the replacement feature is a traditional turned finial of wood. This has been the only major change in the overall form of the building during its lifetime.</p><br>
<h3>The remainder of the nineteenth century</h3><br>
<p>Records indicate ongoing maintenance included painting in 1887-1889 and repainting again in 1890. In 1894, the conservatory&#39;s surrounding landscaping saw numerous transformations in preparations for the California Midwinter International Exposition of 1894. Another fire struck the building in 1895.</p><br>
<p>The conservatory again was repainted in 1899 and received new floors of grooved concrete. At this point, the old floors, some of wood and some of concrete, were replaced by new grooved concrete. The grooves in the floor were intended to carry off the surplus water and make a visit to the conservatory more comfortable and pleasant. Several wooden plant benches that had rotted out were replaced by benches made of concrete wire netting to stand the constant change of temperature better than wood.</p><br>
<h3>The 1906 earthquake</h3><br>
<p>The San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906 did little damage to the Conservatory of Flowers. The structure is visible in a number of photographs of refugees living in Golden Gate Park after the disaster. However, records indicate that reconstruction costs ensued to the surrounding landscape from refugees living in the park.</p><br>
<h3>Early twentieth-century repairs</h3><br>
<p>Minor repairs were made to the Conservatory of Flowers in 1912 and 1913, including carpentry, cement setting for plant benches, and other small repairs. In 1918 a fire, commencing in the furnace room, caused damage to the conservatory&#39;s Potting Room and adjacent Dome Room. Repairs were made as needed. Another fire struck the Conservatory in 1918, causing the roof to partially collapse.</p><br>
<h3>Depression Era decline</h3><br>
<p>During the Depression, the Conservatory of Flowers, due to apparent lack of maintenance, was in poor condition. The Park commissioners instructed the superintendent of Parks to close the Conservatory of Flowers in 1933 and construct proper barricades to prevent possible injury to citizens. The woodwork, foundations, girders, posts, and various structural members became rotted and decayed to such an extent that certain portions of the conservatory were reported to be in danger of falling and potentially causing great injury.</p><br>
<h3>Post-War era</h3><br>
<p>In August 1946, the Conservatory of Flowers was painted and reglazed. A new electrical system, which allowed automatic control of the heating system for all of the conservatory, was installed in 1948. New piping was installed in 1949. A new water supply was installed in 1956.</p><br>
<p>In 1959, the original doors at the wing entrances were replaced with plate-glass windows and concrete panels. That same year, the lower ventilators at the buildings perimeter were removed, and concrete panels, cast in the profile of the ventilators, were installed. This unfortunately seriously compromised the buildings natural ventilation system. A few minor repairs were made in 1962 and 1965.</p><br>
<p>The Conservatory of Flowers was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 14, 1971. It had previously been named a California Historic Landmark on September 1, 1970, and would be designated a San Francisco Landmark on December 4, 1972.</p><br>
<p>A major rehabilitation project took place between 1978 and 1981. Work included the removal of all interior and exterior caps of the arches for visual inspection and probing, in order to detect pockets of wood rot. The portions of arches showing surface wood rot were treated with Git-Rot, a wood preservative. The caps that remained in good condition were salvaged and reinstalled.</p><br>
<p>Building evidence suggests that the exterior surfaces of the arches were originally fitted with copper flashing. The flashing was secured onto the arches and covered by the wood caps. In most locations that were inspected, the flashing had been removed, leaving only short remnants at random locations. The flashing was rolled up and taken away during the 1982 restoration effort. The flashing was an effective method of preventing moisture from entering the joints in the arch assembly, and its removal hastened deterioration. During this restoration as well, various deteriorated wood elements were replaced with pressure-treated, glue-laminated members.</p><br>
<h2>Millennium rehabilitation</h2><br>
<p>During the winter of 1995&ndash;1996, a series of large storms exacerbated the ongoing deterioration of the wood structure. The 100 mph (160 km/h) winds blew out 30,000 fogged white glass panes in the conservatory, shattered the white glass dome, and weakened the structure. In addition, 15 percent of the plant collection was lost due to exposure to the cold, wintry air and flying glass. After covering the holes with tarp and plywood and bringing in heaters, the conservatory contemplated farming out hundreds of plants to other institutions while the building was repaired. Some specimens however were too big or too old to move. The most challenging plant was the 112-year-old Brazilian philodendron that inhabited the shattered dome. A greenhouse was built to house the philodendron and other plants during renovation and afterwards used for expansion and keeping more exotic plants.</p><br>
<p>The conservatory was placed on the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. The Fund aimed to encourage repair rather replacement of the original fabric, and provided funding from financial services company American Express. Additional funding came from the Richard & Rhoda Goldman Fund. In 1998, the National Trust for Historic Preservation adopted the conservatory into its Save Americas Treasures program, launched as part of First Lady Hillary Clintons Millennium Council projects. The publicity from these efforts eventually led to a fundraising campaign organized by what would become the San Francisco Parks Alliance to raise the money needed for rehabilitation, restoration, and stabilization of the conservatory.</p><br>
<p>The construction lasted from 1999 until 2003. Initially estimated to cost $10 million, the actual final cost was $25 million. On September 20, 2003, the restored conservatory was once again opened to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Repair methodology</h3><br>
<p>Between November 1996 and January 1997, on-site surveys were conducted by a project team consisting of Tennebaum-Manheim Engineers and Architectural Resources Group. Surveyors included architects, materials conservators, architectural historians, structural engineers, mechanical engineers, and electrical engineers. The architectural and materials condition survey included a close-range visual inspection of all of the wood members in the building to determine locations of deteriorated wood, an analysis of the types of wood species occurring in the building, a study of the building&#39;s construction details, glazing, and a photographic survey. The structural survey included measuring the deflection of each of the arches and studying the probable lateral and vertical load paths to determine areas of weakness.</p><br>
<h3>Survey findings</h3><br>
<p>The deterioration of wood occurred at typically vulnerable areas, such as the exposed end grain of arches and muntins and where wood members intersect. The humidity in the building was a contributing factor to wood deterioration. The level of moisture in the building was exacerbated by two conditions. First, the building&#39;s natural ventilation system had been removed in a past repair. The ventilators, which were originally located in the low wall area, had been filled in, and some ridge ventilators were inoperable. The air flow through the ventilators, which would have assisted in the evaporation of water, was not occurring. Second, the penetration of rain water from the exterior of the building, because of inadequate or deteriorated waterproofing, had increased the level of moisture in the wood. The copper sheathing that had originally capped the arch exteriors, in addition to acting as a moisture barrier, may have been acting as a biocide through copper oxides inhibiting wood rot.</p><br>
<h3>Repair process</h3><br>
<p>Due to the level of deterioration and concerns relating to the building&#39;s long-term maintenance, a scheme was used to restore the wood structure. This involved disassembling the structure, repairing salvageable materials, and replacing materials deteriorated beyond repair with old-growth redwood that had fallen naturally or had been left behind by loggers. This was possible due to the original method used to fabricate the structure.</p><br>
<p>The construction sequence was as follows. First, temporary protection for those plants that could not be moved was provided. Then, the glass was carefully removed from the building, and historic glazing was salvaged. Structural wood elements of the building (arches), as well as muntins that held the glazing, were disassembled. The location of each element was recorded for reinstallation. The lead-based coatings were stripped from the wood members. Each wooden piece was then tested for its strength and determined if repair or replacement was appropriate.</p><br>
<h2>Contemporary status</h2><br>
<p>In January 2022, legislation was proposed by Mayor London Breed that would put the Conservatory under the oversight of the San Francisco Botanical Garden Society, along with the Japanese Tea Garden and the Botanical Garden itself, under the name "The Gardens of Golden Gate Park". Under the proposal, admission to the gardens would be free for San Francisco Residents.</p><br>
<h2>Appearances in film</h2><br>
<p>Vertigo directed by Alfred Hitchcock (1958)</p><br>
<p>One on Top of the Other directed by Lucio Fulci (1969)</p><br>
<p>Innerspace directed by Joe Dante (1987)</p><br>
<p>Heart and Souls directed by Ron Underwood (1993)</p><br>
<p>Playing Mona Lisa directed by Matthew Huffman (2000)</p><br>
<p>RedirectRoland Parksimilar usesRowland Park </p><br>
<p>Roland Park is a community located in Baltimore, Maryland. It was developed between 1890 and 1920 as an upper-class streetcar suburb. The early phases of the neighborhood were designed by Edward Bouton and Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Jarvis and Conklin, a Chicago investment firm, purchased 500 acre of land near Lake Roland in 1891 and founded the Roland Park Company with $1 million in capital. Not long after, the Panic of 1893 forced Jarvis and Conklin to sell the Roland Park Company to the firm of Stewart and Young. Despite the dire economics after 1893, Stewart and Young continued investment in the development.</p><br>
<p>The Roland Park Company hired Kansas City developer Edward H. Bouton as the general manager and George Edward Kessler to lay out the lots for the first tract. They hired the Olmsted Brothers to lay out the second tract, and installed expensive infrastructure, including graded-streets, gutters, sidewalks, and constructed the Lake Roland Elevated Railroad. The company consulted George E Waring Jr. to advise them on the installation of a sewer system. Bouton placed restrictive covenants on all lots in Roland Park. These included setback requirements and proscriptions against any business operations.</p><br>
<p>It was a modern development, electricity for lighting throughout the neighborhood as well as gas for cooking and lighting. Water came from artesian wells dug up to 500 ft, nearly 50,000 ft of water mains were constructed, in addition to 50,000 ft of roadways, and 100,000 ft of sidewalks.</p><br>
<p>Bouton and some Baltimore investors purchased the interests of Roland Park and reorganized the company in 1903.</p><br>
<p>Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. cited Roland Park as a model residential subdivision to his Harvard School of Design students. Duncan McDuffie, developer of St. Francis Wood in San Francisco, called Roland Park "an ideal residential district." Jesse Clyde Nichols had found inspiration in Roland Park when he was planning the Country Club District of Kansas City. Nichols continued to refer to Roland Park as an ideal residential development when he counselled other residential developers. The park-like setting designed by the Olmsted brothers was a mark of affluence echoed by other neighborhoods in Baltimore such as Mayfield and Guilford.</p><br>
<h2>Deed restrictions and further implications</h2><br>
<p>In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Baltimore saw an influx of immigrants, nearing 600,000. Bouton took 100 acres of land a few miles north of Downtown Baltimore and sold it as an exclusive, lush “garden suburb”, free of city grime and racial diversity.</p><br>
<p>Letters from the time show that Bouton asked a law firm, Schmuker & Whitelock, if he could legally restrict who bought property in Roland Park. Though the firm advised against it, by 1912, the ‘Nuisances’ section of the deed read, “At no time shall the land included in said tract or any part thereof, or any building erected thereon, be occupied by any negro or person of negro extraction. This prohibition, however, is not intended to include occupancy by a negro domestic servant.”</p><br>
<p>Additionally, Bouton claimed that he did not sell to Jews, as they were “undesirable”, at the 1914 Annual Conference of the Development of High-Class Residential Property, further demonstrating the levels of exclusion in the emerging city suburbs.</p><br>
<p>In 1911, George Ford, a professor at Columbia University and later the president of the National Conference on City Planning, was starting to teach a course on urban planning and reached out to Bouton as he was impressed with his racial restrictions. Employees of the Roland Park Company would later go on to serve on national boards, such as the Federal Housing Administration, which helped normalize and standardize the practice of redlining throughout the country.</p><br>
<p>Though the Supreme Court ruled against the enforceability of racially restrictive deeds in 1948, segregation and redlining remained prevalent in Roland Park and throughout other areas of Baltimore City through the 1950s and up until today. In the early 1940s and ‘50s, Baltimore City and the federal government undertook housing development projects displacing African-American populations into inner-city, high-rise buildings that were, essentially, created to reinforce the patterns of neighborhood segregation that emerged in the late 1800s. On this matter, the government stated the project was “not slum clearance but rather using the projects to block the Negro from encroaching upon white territory”.</p><br>
<p>The real estate developer James W. Rouse used antisemitic quotas when building in Roland Park. In 1951, Rouse enforced a quota of no more than 12% Jewish residents for the Maryland Apartment in north Baltimore until 75% of the apartments were rented.</p><br>
<h2>Roland Park Shopping Center</h2><br>
<p>Roland Park Shopping Center (originally Roland Park Business Block) was built at the corner of Upland Road and Roland Avenue in 1896 in the English Tudor style. Developed by Roland Park Company President Edward Bouton and designed by Wyatt and Nolting, it was originally planned as an apartment and office building with a “community room” for civic functions on the upper level.</p><br>
<p>It opened in 1907 as shops. It has been credited by Guinness World Records as the world&#39;s first shopping center (though some editions of Guinness incorrectly date it to 1896, when it was not yet a shopping center). Since it had only six stores, qualifying today as a strip mall, other, larger centers have received more recognition as “firsts”, such as Market Square in Lake Forest, Illinois (1916, the first uniformly planned neighborhood shopping center) and the Country Club Plaza (1923) in Kansas City, Missouri, the first uniformly-planned regional shopping center.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The neighborhood is within the bounds of Baltimore City Public Schools and is assigned to Roland Park Elementary/Middle School, a K-8 school that earned the Blue Ribbon for Academic Excellence from the state department of education in 1997 and 1998.</p><br>
<p>There are several private schools in the neighborhood: Friends School of Baltimore, Gilman School, Roland Park Country School, the Bryn Mawr School, Cathedral School, and Boys Latin School of Maryland. In addition, St. Marys Seminary and University is located in Roland Park.</p><br>
<p>There is also a branch of the Enoch Pratt Free Library in Roland Park.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Baltimore Light Rail&#39;s Cold Spring Lane Station is to the west, within walking distance of much of the neighborhood, just across Falls Road and running alongside the Jones Falls Expressway.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House is the historic Custis family mansion built by George Washington Parke Custis from 1803–1818 as a memorial to George Washington. Currently maintained by the National Park Service, it is located in the USA Army&#39;s Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia . Arlington House is a Greek Revival style mansion designed by the English architect George Hadfield. The Custis grave sites, garden and slave quarters are also preserved on the former Arlington Estate.</p><br>
<p>George Washington Parke Custis lived at Arlington House with his wife Mary Fitzhugh Custis and their daughter, Mary Anna Randolph Custis. Custis built Arlington House as a memorial to his namesake, George Washington, husband of his grandmother, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington. Custis inherited the land from his father, John Parke Custis, who died at the end of the American Revolution at Yorktown. Martha Washington&#39;s children and two of her grandchildren were raised at Mount Vernon, the nearby Washington family estate in Virginia. George Washington Parke Custis served in the USA Army in the War of 1812 and helped prevent the famous painting of George Washington from falling into the hands of the British.</p><br>
<p>His daughter, painter Mary Anna Randolph Custis married her childhood friend and distant cousin, then-USA Army Lieutenant Robert E. Lee, and all but one of their children were born there. They all lived at Arlington House together as Lee traveled as a soldier in the USA Army. It was there that Lee decided to resign from the USA Army after having been offered command of it, to eventually lead the Army of Northern Virginia in the Confederate States Army during the USA Civil War</p><br>
<p>The USA Army of the Potomac used the mansion for a headquarters and buried Civil War soldiers in the garden by the mansion. In a gesture of unity after the war, 2,111 unknown Civil War soldiers from both sides and several battles were buried together in a vault located near the mansion.</p><br>
<p>The government had confiscated Arlington Estate claiming that its rightful owner, Mary Anna Randolph Custis Lee, did not pay her property taxes on time in person (she had sent an agent to pay, who was refused). As per the Custis will, Arlington would later go to her son George Custis Lee. After the War, the property was returned to the Lee family, after a Supreme Court decision determined that the Federal Government had unlawfully refused payment, invalidating the subsequent confiscation. Custis Lee sold the property back to the USA with the graves undisturbed.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House is part of the "Arlington National Cemetery Historical Region" on the National Register of Historic Places. The USA flag flies at half-staff there whenever funerals are in progress.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and early history</h2><br>
<p>The mansion was built on the orders of George Washington Parke Custis. He was the grandson of Martha Dandridge Custis Washington and Daniel Parke Custis, and the son of Eleanor Calvert Custis and John Parke Custis who was the stepson of George Washington. George W. P. Custis and his sister (Nelly) Eleanor Parke Custis were stepchildren and wards of Dr. David Stuart (their mother Eleanors second husband). Marthas children and grandchildren were raised by the Washingtons at Mount Vernon. Custis became a prominent resident of an area that was then known as Alexandria County, at the time part of the District of Columbia prior to the District of Columbia retrocession.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House was built at a high point on a 1,100-acre (445 ha) estate that Custiss father, John Parke Custis, had purchased in 1778 and named "Mount Washington". "Jacky" Custis died at Yorktown in 1781 after the British surrender. The younger Custis decided to build his home on the property in 1802 following the death of Martha Washington and three years after the death of George Washington. After acquiring the property, Custis renamed it "Arlington" after the Custis familys homestead on the Eastern Shore of Virginia.</p><br>
<p>Custis began constructing Arlington House on his land, hiring George Hadfield as architect, who constructed a mansion exhibiting the first example of Greek Revival architecture in America. Custis intended the mansion to serve as a living memorial to George Washington and a place for his collection of George Washington artifacts. Its design included elements similar to those of George Washington&#39;s house at Mount Vernon.</p><br>
<p>Construction began in 1803, eleven years after LEnfants Plan for the future federal city later called "Washington City" and then Washington, D.C., had designated an area directly across the Potomac River to be the site of the "Presidents House", later called the "Executive Mansion" and now the White House, and the "Congress House", now the United States Capitol. Custis located the building on a prominent hill overlooking Georgetown-Alexandria Turnpike at the approximate location of the present Eisenhower Drive in Arlington National Cemetery, the Potomac River and growing national capital of Washington, D.C., on the opposite side of the river. The mansion was built using materials on site, though the building was interrupted by the War of 1812, and material shortages after the British burned the American capital city. The Custis mansions exterior was completed in 1818.</p><br>
<p>Pierre Charles LEnfant was an engineer, architect and city planner who served in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. LEnfant designed the layout of Washington City (now D.C.). He is buried in front of the mansion in section 2, grave S-3 overlooking the city he planned.</p><br>
<p>The north and south wings were completed in 1804. The large center section and the portico, presenting an imposing front 140 ft (43 m) long, were finished 13 years later. The house has two kitchens, a summer and a winter. The most prominent features of the house are the 8 massive columns of the portico, each 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter.</p><br>
<p>Notable guests at the house included Marquis de Lafayette, who visited in 1824. At Arlington, Custis experimented with new methods of animal husbandry and other agriculture. The property also included Arlington Spring, a picnic ground on the banks of the Potomac that Custis originally built for private use but later opened to the public, eventually operating it as a commercial enterprise.</p><br>
<p>Custis married Mary Lee Fitzhugh. Their only child to survive to adulthood was Mary Anna Randolph Custis. Robert E. Lee, whose mother was a cousin of Mrs. Custis, frequently visited Arlington and knew Mary Anna as they grew up. Two years after graduating from West Point, Lieutenant Lee married Mary Anna Custis at Arlington on June 30, 1831. For 30 years, Arlington House was home to the Lees. They spent much of their married life traveling between United States Army duty stations and Arlington, where six of their seven children were born. They shared this home with Marys parents. After their deaths, Marys parents were buried not far from the house on land that is now part of Arlington National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>The Custis family extensively developed the Arlington estate. Much of the steep slope to the east of the house became a cultivated English landscape park, while a large flower garden with an arbor was constructed and planted south of the house. To the west of Arlington House, tall grass and low native plants led down a slope into a natural area of close-growing trees the Custises called "the Grove." About 60 ft west of the flower garden, "the Grove" contained tall elm and oak trees which formed a canopy. An informal flower garden was planted beneath the trees and maintained by the Custis daughters before 1853.</p><br>
<p>Upon George Washington Parke Custiss death in 1857, he left Arlington Estate to Mary Anna Randolph Custis Lee for her lifetime when it would then go to her eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee. The estate needed much repair and reorganization, and Robert E. Lee, as executor of Custiss will, took a three-year leave of absence from the Army to begin the necessary agricultural and financial improvements.</p><br>
<h2>Civil War</h2><br>
<p>In April 1861, Virginia seceded from the United States. Though offered command of the USA Army, Robert E. Lee resigned his commission on April 20, 1861 and joined the Confederate States Army. With Arlington House on high ground overlooking the capital, the federal government of the United States knew it needed to occupy the mansion or be left in an untenable military position. Although unwilling to leave Arlington House, Mary Custis Lee believed her estate would soon be occupied by Union Army soldiers and left to stay with relatives on May 14, after being warned by her young cousin William Orton Williams, who was then serving as aide to General Winfield Scott. On May 24, 1861, Union Army troops seized and occupied Arlington without opposition.</p><br>
<p>In June 1862, the 37th United States Congress enacted legislation that imposed a property tax on all land in "insurrectionary" areas of the United States. The 1863 amendments to the statute required that these taxes be paid in person. Mary Lee, afflicted with severe rheumatoid arthritis and behind Confederate lines, could not pay the tax in person, resulting in the Arlington estate being seized for nonpayment of taxes. It was auctioned off on January 11, 1864, and the USA government acquired the property for $26,800 ($ today).</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War, Union Army troops cut down many of the trees on the Arlington estate, especially those to the north and east of Arlington House in and near Fort Whipple, which was north of the house and Arlington Springs near the Potomac River. However, a number of large trees remained, particularly those in a forested area now known as Arlington Woods, located west of the house.</p><br>
<p>By early 1864, the military cemeteries of Washington, D.C., and Alexandria, Virginia, were rapidly filling with war dead. Quartermaster General of the USA Army Montgomery C. Meigs proposed using 200 acre of the Arlington Estate as a cemetery. United States Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton approved the establishment of a military cemetery on June 15, 1864 and created Arlington National Cemetery. Meigs decided that a large number of burials should occur close to Arlington House to render it unlivable. Officers were to be buried next to the main flower garden south of the house, and the first burial occurred here on May 17. Meigs ordered that additional burials commence immediately on the grounds of Arlington House in mid-June. When Union officers bivouacked in the mansion complained and had the burials temporarily stopped, Meigs countermanded their orders and had another 44 dead officers buried along the southern and eastern sides of the main flower garden within a month.</p><br>
<p>In September 1866, the remains of 2,111 Union and Confederate soldiers killed in the First Battle of Bull Run, Second Battle of Bull Run, and along the Rappahannock River were buried on the former site of the Grove, southeast of the mansion beneath the Civil War Unknowns Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Post-Civil War</h2><br>
<p>Robert E. Lee did not visit Arlington after the war. He died as president of Washington College in 1870. Mary Lee died in 1873, having visited the house only one more time, a few months before her death. Too upset at its condition, she refused to enter and left after just a few moments.</p><br>
<p>In April 1874, Robert E. Lee and Mary Custis Lees eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee, filed suit against the United States government in a Virginia circuit court to regain the property. Custis Lee was a major general in the Civil War and was captured by Union forces at the Battle of Sailors Creek on April 6, 1865 (see David Dunnels White). A jury found in favor of Custis Lee, leading to extensive appeals by both parties. In 1882, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in favor of Lee in United States v. Lee, 106 U. S. 196. The court, by a 5–4 majority, found that the estate had been "illegally confiscated" in 1864 and ordered it returned. But Lee was less interested in obtaining the estate then he was a cash compensation for its value. After several months of difficult negotiations, Lee and the federal government settled on a sale price of $150,000 ($ in dollars). Congress enacted legislation funding the purchase on March 3, 1883; Lee signed over the title on March 31; and the title transfer was recorded on May 14, 1883.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Virginia General Assembly changed the name of Alexandria County to Arlington County to end ongoing confusion between Alexandria County and the independent city of Alexandria. The name Arlington was chosen to reflect the presence of the Arlington House.</p><br>
<p>On March 4, 1925, the 68th United States Congress enacted Public Resolution 74, which authorized the restoration of the Lee Mansion in the Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia. The War Department then began to restore Arlington House, and the Department of the Army continues to manage over half of the original plantations 1,100 acre, as Arlington National Cemetery. However, for several years after Congress enacted the authorizing legislation, the War Department, which was responsible for managing the house and grounds, largely ignored the legislation. Contradicting the authorizing legislation, the department, largely at the insistence of Charles Moore, the director of the United States Commission of Fine Arts, furnished and interpreted the Mansion to “the first half of the republic.” This decision was based, in part, on the popularity of the Colonial Revival movement which was still popular in 1925. The Mansion was restored to the period of George Washington Parke Custis, and no furniture manufactured after 1830 was accepted. This approach negated Lees role and presence at Arlington.</p><br>
<p>In 1955, the 84th United States Congress enacted Public Law 84–107, a joint resolution that designated the manor as the "Custis-Lee Mansion" as a permanent memorial to Robert E. Lee. The resolution directed the United States Secretary of the Interior to erect on the premises a memorial plaque and to correct governmental records to bring them into compliance with the designation, "thus ensuring that the correct interpretation of its history would be applied". Gradually the house was furnished and interpreted to the period of Robert E. Lee as specified in the original legislation. The National Park Service received jurisdiction over the building and some 28 acre of adjacent gardens (distinguished from the cemetery) beginning June 10, 1933. In 1972, the 92nd United States Congress enacted Public Law 92-333, an Act that amended Public Law 84–107 to designate the manor as "Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial".</p><br>
<p>In 2020, members of Congress began to introduce bills to change the name again, to "The Arlington House National Historic Site". By 2022 they won the support of a variety of descendants of former residents, including the Lees.</p><br>
<h2>Gray family</h2><br>
<p>One of the lesser-known histories about Arlington House concerns the Gray family, who helped to preserve the legacy of George Washington Parke Custis as well as the Lee family. Selina Norris Gray, the daughter of Leonard and Sally Norris, was a second-generation Arlington slave. In 1831, Selina married Thornton Gray, a fellow Arlington slave, and eventually had eight children who grew up at Arlington. With the onset of the Civil War, the Lee family had to evacuate their home before the Union troops came and occupied the property. Even though Selina was a personal maid to Mrs. Lee, she and her family were left behind; however, before leaving, Mrs. Lee left the house keys to Selina and the responsibility to protect the treasures of the home. Several of these treasures included cherished family heirlooms that had once belonged to Mrs. Lee&#39;s great-grandmother, Martha Custis Washington, and President George Washington.</p><br>
<p>Within months of Union Army General Irvin McDowell occupying the home in 1861, Selina realized that several precious heirlooms were missing due to soldiers looting the property. When she discovered that some of the Washington relics had also disappeared, she promptly provided a list of the missing objects to General McDowell and convinced him that the significance of the collection required his involvement. He first secured the attic and basement areas to prevent further theft, then had the remaining Lee heirlooms shipped to the Patent Office in Washington, D.C., for safekeeping. While Selina is credited with saving the heirlooms and treasures of Arlington House, her children later on are credited with helping to restore the home as well as provide accurate details about the layout of the home, personal stories of the Lee family, and help preservationists in the early twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>During major restorative efforts to Arlington House from 1929 to 1930, the Gray family made another important contribution to the history of Arlington County and the nation. Four of Selina and Thornton&#39;s daughters provided crucial details about the house and its furnishings, and their input proved vital to the authenticity of the project. In 2014, the National Park Service acquired a rare photograph of Selina.</p><br>
<h2>Recent history</h2><br>
<h3>Arlington National Cemetery expansion</h3><br>
<p>In 1995, officials of the United States Department of the Interior and the United States Department of the Army signed an agreement to transfer from Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial, to the Army a part of Arlington Woods, which was located in Section 29 of the NPS at Arlington National Cemetery between Arlington House and Fort Myer. The property transfer, which involved 12 acre of NPS land, was intended to enable the Cemetery to increase its space for burials.</p><br>
<p>Environmentalists expressed concerns that the agreement would result in the partial destruction of the 24 acre remnant of a historically important stand of native trees. Nevertheless, Congress enacted legislation in September 1996 authorizing the transfer.</p><br>
<p>On June 5, 2013, after reviewing 100 public comments that it had received on a draft environmental assessment (EA) for the Cemetery expansion project, the United States Army Corps of Engineers released a final EA and a signed Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) for the project. The final EA stated that, of the 905 trees to be removed, 771 trees were healthy native trees that had diameters between 6 and 41 inches. The project would remove approximately 211 trees from a less than 2.63 acre area containing a portion of a 145-year-old forest that stood within the property boundaries of a historic district that a National Register of Historic Places nomination form for Arlington House had described in 1966. About 491 trees would be removed from an area of trees that was approximately 105 years old. At a public hearing on July 11, 2013, the National Capital Planning Commission approved the site and building plans for the project.</p><br>
<h3>Studies, damages and restorations</h3><br>
<p>From 2003 to 2007, the National Park Service conducted an archeological excavation of two outbuildings that once held Arlington House&#39;s slave quarters. In 2009, the Park Service published reports that described the history of the slave quarters and the findings of the excavations, as well as proposals for the restoration of the quarters.</p><br>
<p>From 2007 through 2013, Arlington House underwent its first renovation since 1925. During that period, the National Park Services placed the House&#39;s furnishings on display at the Friendship Hill National Historic Site near Point Marion, Pennsylvania. The Park Service held a rededication ceremony after it had completed the renovation and returned the furnishings to the House.</p><br>
<p>Arlington House suffered significant damage in the 2011 Virginia earthquake, requiring the closure of the back halls and upper floor pending an architectural assessment. On July 17, 2014, philanthropist David Rubenstein donated $12.5 million (~$ in ) to the National Park Foundation (the arm of the National Park Service which raises funds through private contributions) to rehabilitate Arlington House, its outbuildings, and grounds. The 30-month project is intended to restore the mansion, buildings, and grounds to the way they looked in 1860. The project will repair the earthquake-damaged foundation, and add new interior lighting and a modern climate-control system. National Park Service officials said they are likely to close Arlington House and the slave quarters for several months in 2016, during which most of the work will be done.</p><br>
<h2>Replicas</h2><br>
<p>In 1919, a replica was built for the short-lived Lanier University in Atlanta, designed by architect A. Ten Eyck Brown. It is still standing at 1140 University Drive NE, and houses the Ben H. Zimmerman Religious School and the Canterbury School. Arlington Hall, a two-thirds scale replica of Arlington House, was built in 1939 in Robert E. Lee Park, now Turtle Creek Park, in Dallas, Texas.</p><br>
<p>The façade of the Old Administration Building in Arlington National Cemetery resembles that of Arlington House. The building is 500 ft west of Arlington House.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Arlington House appears in the 2008 videogame Fallout 3, though bearing little resemblance to its real-life counterpart.</p><br>
<p>The Jason Russell House is a historic house in Arlington, Massachusetts, the site of the bloodiest fighting on the first day of the American Revolutionary War, April 19, 1775 . The house was purchased in 1923 by the Arlington Historical Society which restored it in 1926, and now operates it as a museum from mid-April through the end of October, together with the adjoining Smith Museum, built in 1981 to house changing exhibitions of life in Arlington.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>About 1740, Jason Russell (1716–1775), a relatively prosperous farmer and militiaman, constructed the house on pasture land he inherited in 1738. To have the front facing south, in the New England tradition, he placed the north side angled toward the Concord Road (now Massachusetts Avenue), so that the east-facing front was facing slightly south. The house is a typical New England farmhouse with five windows across the front, a door in the center and a large chimney in the middle of a pitched roof. There is some evidence that components in the hall (or kitchen) and its chamber above, as well as the garret, were salvaged from Grandfather Jasons original structure of 1680. The hall and parlor of the house, with their chambers and the garret, are essentially unchanged today, although in 1814 a porch (or vestibule) was added to the front door, and further extensions were subsequently added to the sides around 1863. Inside the central part are four rooms: to the left of the entry are the kitchen and childrens chamber (above), and to the right, the parlor and parlor chamber. The kitchen ceiling retains its original whitewash and sponge painting decorative surface treatment. The outside walls may have been plastered originally, but in 1924, when the house was restored, wood sheathing was installed.</p><br>
<p>Robert Nylander proposed in 1964 that the house was built in two stages; however, research conducted in 2012 by the Dendrochronology Laboratory at Oxford University confirms that the home was erected during a single campaign in 1745, as had been maintained by Russell family lore. The Oxford study also revealed that many of the timbers used in the house were made from lumber cut in 1684–85 or earlier and was probably salvaged from an older building on the property.</p><br>
<h2>April 19, 1775</h2><br>
<p>The history of the Jason Russell House on April 19, 1775, is also the history of a family. Jason and Elizabeth Russell had raised six surviving children here. Three had married and moved to Mason, New Hampshire; a fourth, Thomas had established a grocery store across the street in 1773 and had married the following year. Remaining at home were Elizabeth (called Betsey by the family), who was 18, and Noah, who had just turned 12 the previous month.</p><br>
<p>But that day the history of the house and yard became the history of a whole region as it became part of the Battle of Menotomy.</p><br>
<p>Around midnight of the night before, a rider named Paul Revere had passed the house on his mission to warn that the British regulars (soldiers) would be coming by on their way to Lexington and, ultimately, to Concord.</p><br>
<p>About half an hour later William Dawes would pass by with the same message.</p><br>
<p>And around 2 in the morning about 700 troops under the command of Lieutenant Col. Francis Smith would march “quietly” by.</p><br>
<h3>The Troops Assemble</h3><br>
<p>Meanwhile, the rides of Revere and Dawes triggered a flexible notification system (express riders as well as bells, drums, alarm guns, bonfires, and a trumpet) to let the towns within 25 miles of Boston know that a sizable body of troops was on the move. Accordingly, militias and minutemen groups from many outlying communities assembled and began marches that would eventually bring them to Jason Russell’s property.</p><br>
<p>Around 9 am troops began to assemble in Danvers, including the part that is now Peabody, comprising two companies of minutemen under Israel Hutchinson and Gideon Foster as well as three militias under Samuel Flint, Samuel Eppes, and Jeremiah Page. These left at different times and via different routes but all arrived in Menotomy about the same time. One body of minutemen gathered at the Bell Tavern, at the corner of what is now Main and Washington in Peabody. Setting out at 10, they covered 16 miles in 4 hours, to arrive in Menotomy by early afternoon. The Town of Beverly also contributed three companies of militia, some of whom were trained as minutemen. In all, perhaps 300 men assembled from just Danvers, Peabody, and Beverly.</p><br>
<p>Around noon or so Jason Russell, who was “old” (59) and lame, started bringing his family up for safety to the George Prentiss house, beyond the ridge of the hill behind the house, where they could be safe with others. But partway up, he let the family go on alone and returned “to look after things at home.” On his arrival, patriot militias were already stationing themselves around the house. From bundles of shingles that were lying about, as Jason had been preparing to reshingle, he and some patriot militias formed a barricade behind his gate, thinking this would be a good place to fire on the enemy as they returned.</p><br>
<p>Other men from Danvers went into a “walled enclosure” and reinforced that protection with additional shingles. Other militias stationed themselves among the trees on the property, such as those in the orchard on the slope behind (on the south side of) the house. Danvers&#39;s Gideon Foster, having been warned by the more experienced Hutchinson of the possibility of a flanking attack, also set up among the trees rather than behind barricades.</p><br>
<p>Jason and the patriot militias positioned themselves somewhat back from the road itself. t that time, a little west of Russell’s house, the land rose on the near side of the road, obscuring the patriots’ view of the approaching armies – and vice versa. A mill pond lying on the far side of the road had a “margin” that extended across to the space in front of the patriots. A brook that flowed between Russell’s house and that of his neighbor across the road may have marked the near edge of the margin.</p><br>
<h3>The Battle</h3><br>
<p>“Unfortunately, Jason Russell and the others had made one great miscalculation….” Around four o&#39;clock the British left the Foot of the Rocks, about a mile up the road, and while the main column was coming by the main road, flanking parties were also advancing on both sides. The patriots had not counted on the flanking parties.</p><br>
<p>With troops on the way, Ammi Cutter, Jason’s neighbor on the north side of the road, spotted Russell among the militias, crossed over the road and the brook, and begged Jason to go to a safer spot. But Jason replied, “And Englishman’s home is his castle,” and stayed with the waiting ambush. As Cutter returned across the hollow, the north side flanking party spotted him and took pot shots at him. He managed to reach the old mill, where he tripped and fell among some logs, with bullets sending chips of bark all around him. Fortunately, the flanking party left him for dead and passed on.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile the southside flankers came upon the patriots stationed on the slope that rose south of the house. Jotham Webb, a minuteman serving under Danvers’ Colonel Hutchinson, was “shot through the body and killed by the first fire.” Abednego Ramsdell of Lynn also "fell “immediately”.</p><br>
<p>Two friends, Daniel Townsend and Timothy Munroe, who were from the part of Lynn that became Lynnfield, were standing in the yard behind the house, firing at the British troops. Then, according to Lewis and Newhall,Townsend had just fired, and exclaimed, “There is another redcoat down,” when Munroe, looking round, saw, to his astonishment, that they were completely hemmed in by the flank guard of the British army, who were coming down through the fields behind them. They immediately ran into the house, and sought for the cellar; but no cellar was there. They looked for a closet, but there was none. All this time, which was indeed but a moment, the balls were pouring through the back windows, making havoc of the glass. Townsend leaped through the end window, carrying the sash and all with him, and instantly fell dead. Munroe followed, and ran for his life. He passed for a long distance between the parties, many of whom discharged their guns at him. As he passed the last soldier, who stopped to fire, he heard the redcoat exclaim, “Damn the Yankee! He is bullet proof – let him go!” Mr. Munroe had one ball through his leg, and thirty-two bullet holes through his clothes and hat. Even the metal buttons of his waistcoat were shot off.And it was not just the window fragments that did Townsend in; he had also been shot through with seven bullets.</p><br>
<p>Russell was outside his house and joined the minutemen as they fled toward it. Being old and slow, he was in the rear and got shot twice as he reached his own doorway and was then stabbed eleven times with bayonets. The British then rushed into the house and engaged its occupants, prompting the minutemen to find shelter. Eight minutemen made it to the basement and fired up the stairs.</p><br>
<h3>The Aftermath</h3><br>
<h4>The Bodies on the Floor</h4><br>
<p>Speaking in 1864, Samuel Smith reported that “ur people gathered up the Americans who were killed in and about the house, and laid them side by side in the south room, and when Mrs. Russell came back to her home she found them there, weltering in their own blood, her husband and eleven others. She said that the blood in the room was almost ankle deep. The house itself was riddled with bullets, and the marks of them in many places are still visible. The same blood-stained floor remained on that room till a year ago” - that is, until 1863.</p><br>
<p>The twelve were soon brought by oxen-drawn sled to the Precinct burying ground and buried in a mass grave, clothes and all, although the bodies were neatly laid out. However, a Capt. William Adams, who lived nearby, is reported to have brought a sheet from his house for Jason himself, as he could not bear to see his neighbor buried without a winding-sheet.</p><br>
<p>A plain obelisk of New Hampshire granite was later raised above the grave. The inscription on the monument reads:</p><br>
<p>Erected by the Inhabitants of West Cambridge, A.D. 1848, over the common grave of Jason Russell, Jason Winship, Jabez Wyman and nine others, who were slain in this town by the British Troops on their retreat from the Battles of Lexington and Concord, April 19th, 1775. Being among the first to lay down their lives in the struggle for American Independence.</p><br>
<p>The nine others, forgotten at the time the monument was erected, have since been identified as: John Bacon, Amos Mills, Jonathan Parker, Nathan Chamberlain of Needham, William Flint, Thomas Hadley, Abednego Ramsdell of Lynn, Elias Haven of Dedham and Benjamin Pierce of Salem.</p><br>
<p>Of the twelve, only eight are not known to have died outside the house and so are most likely to have been killed inside. As noted above, Jason Russell himself was felled on his own doorstep, while Abednego Ramsdell was one of the first to be killed by the flankers rounding the south side of the house. Two others, Jabez Wyman and Jacob Winship, died not at Jason Russells house, but "were most barbarously killed and mutilated" down the road at Coopers tavern, and were evidently placed with the others after the fighting had ceased.</p><br>
<h4>The Russell Family</h4><br>
<p>Jason Russell&#39;s estate was settled in 1776. His house and 117 acres of land were divided between Noah, his only son left at home, and his widow, Elizabeth. She received the 17 acres the house was standing on together with half the house, "Libberty to use the oven when wanted" and additional privileges of use, including space in the barn. Noah received the other half of the house, half the barn and some lands. Other children got other parts of the estate. Elizabeth Russell lived in her northerly rooms until the eleventh of August 1786 when she died aged 65.</p><br>
<p>The St. Elmo Historic District, or St. Elmo for short, is a neighborhood in the city of Chattanooga, Tennessee. It is situated in the southernmost part of Hamilton County within the valley of Lookout Mountain below the part of the Tennessee River known as Moccasin Bend. St Elmo is at the crossroads of two ancient Indian trails, and was first occupied by Native American hunters and gatherers in the Woodland period, then agricultural Mississippians, including Euchee and Muscogee, and for a brief period between 1776 and 1786, the Cherokees in a community called Lookout Town. St. Elmo became part of the city of Chattanooga when it was annexed in September 1929.</p><br>
<p>Hundreds of properties in the neighborhood were listed on the National Register in 1982, and in 1996 St. Elmo was designated a Local Historic District. Many of the buildings from the late 19th and early 20th century have been preserved. A St. Elmo resident is an Elmoian.</p><br>
<h2>Settlement</h2><br>
<p>In 1776, Cherokee chief Dragging Canoe and several hundred Cherokee warriors migrated to Chickamauga Creek after objecting to a treaty between other Cherokees and American land speculators and promising active resistance. They became known as the Chickamaugas, and eventually moved farther down the Tennessee River below The Suck; to the other end of the Tennessee River Gorge. There they built the "Five Lower Towns" at Running Water (now Whiteside) and further downriver. Between 1777 and 1782, the so-called "Chickamaugas" also had a town called Tsatanugi (or Chatanuga, based on the Muscogee word cvto - rock), near here along Chattanooga Creek.</p><br>
<p>Daniel Ross, a young Scottish immigrant, came to the area in 1785 and worked at a trading post with John McDonald, the areas first businessman. Ross married McDonalds daughter and the two built a house in what was to become St. Elmo after the Wars. Their youngest son, John Ross, was the leader of the Cherokee Nation who would call for passive resistance to the federal Indian removal policies that led to the Trail of Tears in 1838.</p><br>
<h2>Early St. Elmo and Chattanooga</h2><br>
<p>Up until 1838, the Tennessee River was the dividing line between Hamilton County and the Cherokee country. That year, the community of Ross&#39;s Landing was surveyed, and in 1839 the village of Chattanooga was established north of the mouth of Chattanooga Creek. In 1840, the state of Tennessee began to sell the property formerly owned by the Cherokees at the rate of $7.50 an acre.</p><br>
<p>James Whiteside purchased 5,000 acres of land, including most of the northern end of Lookout Mountain. To encourage tourism, Whiteside built a turnpike up the mountain and a three-story hotel for tourists, which opened in 1855. Among the visitors was young writer Augusta Jane Evans, who became friends with Whitesides daughter, Thankful Whiteside, and her husband, Abraham Malone Johnson. Evans was said to have quipped that the view toward Chattanooga from Lookout Mountain reminded her of the view of Naples, Italy from St. Elmo Castle. After the American Civil War and in need to cash, Evans published a novel set in the vicinity about a young woman whose Christian virtue redeems a cynical lothario named Clinton St. Elmo. Titled St. Elmo, the novel appeared in 1866 to great success, selling more than a million copies within four months of its publication date. The area took its name from the novel. Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Tom&#39;s Cabin was the only American novel to sell more copies in the nineteenth century.</p><br>
<h2>Yellow fever and urban development</h2><br>
<p>A yellow fever epidemic in Chattanooga caused an exodus in 1878. Almost 12,000 people fled the city, many going to Lookout Mountain. At the time, the mountain was accessible on the north side only by a four-hour trip up the old Whiteside Turnpike, which was built in the 1850s and cost a toll of two dollars. Complaints about the toll led to the 1879 construction of the St. Elmo Turnpike, which had an easier grade and a lower toll (the St. Elmo turnpike was paved and renamed the Adolph S. Ochs Highway in the late 1920s).</p><br>
<p>Until the 1880s, the area at the foot of Lookout Mountain remained primarily a wooded area. The real boom in the growth of St. Elmo as a residential community coincided with the planning and development of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, which was dedicated in 1890. At the time, St. Elmo saw development resulting from both a general real estate and construction boom in the South and the 1893 expansion of an electric trolley from Chattanooga to St. Elmo.</p><br>
<h2>Connecting St. Elmo to Chattanooga</h2><br>
<p>The trolley was not the only transportation development to influence the history of St. Elmo. In 1887, the narrow-gauge Incline #1 ran cars from St. Elmo up to the bluffs of Lookout Mountain. Soon after, a broad-gauge line was opened for carrying regular railroad cars to the mountaintop. And finally, in 1895, Incline #2 (now known as the Incline Railway) started taking passengers up the steepest part of the mountain. Its views were popular with both residents and tourists, and by 1900 the success of this railway closed down all of its competitors. Today, "Americas Most Amazing Mile" still enjoys the distinction of being the worlds steepest passenger railway.</p><br>
<p>In 1905, St. Elmo was incorporated and a town commission was formed for the purpose of securing funding for a school. A bond was issued, and work on the building was completed at the end of 1906. The small brick building replaced St. Elmo&#39;s first school, established in 1891.</p><br>
<p>It wasn&#39;t until 1926 that a direct route was established between St. Elmo and Chattanooga. The city wanted to provide a thoroughfare to St. Elmo and Lookout Mountain, but Broad Street ended abruptly at Ninth Street (now Martin Luther King Boulevard), terminating at a railroad station owned by the State of Georgia. Negotiations to open a passageway for a road through the south side had failed over the years. Chattanooga Commissioner Ed Bass took matters into his own hands on the night of May 6, when he and a crew of city workers bulldozed enough of the buildings to establish a right-of-way for cars. The city got its road, and eventually Georgia sold the rest of its holdings in the area.</p><br>
<p>The Old State House  in Hartford, Connecticut is generally believed to have been designed by noted American architect Charles Bulfinch as his first public building. The State House is currently managed by the Office of Legislative Management of the Connecticut General Assembly.</p><br>
<p>The exterior building and the Senate have been restored to its original Federal style; the Representative&#39;s chamber is Victorian, and the halls and courtroom are Colonial Revival.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Hartford State House is, in appearance, very similar to the Town Hall of Liverpool, England, built in the mid-18th century and perhaps depicted in one of Bulfinch&#39;s architecture books. However, all materials came from the United States. Its first story is 20 feet high and constructed from Portland, Connecticut brownstone. The second and third stories are brick patterned in Flemish bond. The cornice is wooden.</p><br>
<p>The State House has been modified somewhat since it was first built. As originally constructed, the building had neither balustrade or cupola, but the balustrade was added in the early 19th century for the protection of firemen, and the cupola was constructed in 1827 with its bell and John Stanwood&#39;s statue of Justice. An original (1796) stone spiral staircase behind the northern arch, designed by Asher Benjamin, led to the second and third floors; it no longer exists. In 1814, the Hartford Convention was held there. In 1839, the start of the Amistad trial was held there.</p><br>
<p>The building had been in danger of closing in 2008 due to financial constraints. State and Hartford officials have recently signed a 99-year lease placing Connecticut&#39;s Old State House under new management. The lease puts the city-owned historic building under the control of the state Office of Legislative Management.</p><br>
<p>It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<p>Exhibits focus on the history of Hartford and important events in Connecticut history. Visitors can also tour the original legislative rooms.</p><br>
<h2>Joseph Steward Museum of Curiosities</h2><br>
<p>The Museum of Natural and Other Curiosities is located on the third floor of the Old State House. The museum features a recreation of Joseph Steward&#39;s original 1798 collection of natural history displays and curiosities.</p><br>
<h2>Haunted reputation</h2><br>
<p>Over the years, several eyewitnesses (mostly staff members) have claimed to experience paranormal activity inside the building. In 2009, the Old State House was investigated by the investigators of TAPS on episode 524 of the Sci Fi Channel program Ghost Hunters. The episode aired on December 9, 2009. Following the investigation, TAPS announced that they captured audio of strange sounds inside the building. Something that sounded like a doorknob being opened was recorded in the Senate Room while no one was in it, and audio of what sounded like a woman sighing was captured in the Steward Museum room when no female team members were present in the building. Before giving a final verdict of "haunted or not", the team plans to head back to the Old State House for a more in depth investigation. So until then, this case remains open.</p><br>
<p>The Scarab Club  is an artists&#39; club, gallery, and studio in the Cultural Center Historic District of Detroit, Michigan, located at 217 Farnsworth Street, near the Detroit Institute of Arts and the Detroit Science Center. It was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1974 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.</p><br>
<h2>The early years</h2><br>
<p>The Scarab Club was formed in 1907. It began as an informal association named the Hopkin Club after the founder, marine painter Robert Hopkin. The members met regularly to talk art, eat dinner, and critique paintings. The club&#39;s vision since inception was</p><br>
<p>"to promote the mutual acquaintance of art lovers and art workers; to stimulate and guide toward practical expression the artistic sense of the people of Detroit; to advance the knowledge and love of the fine arts in every possible manner; and to maintain a clubhouse for entertainment and social purposes as well as to provide working and exhibit facilities for artist members."</p><br>
<p>Renamed the "Scarab Club" in 1913, the club grew in popularity, and member Lancelot Sukert, a Detroit architect, designed the current clubhouse, which opened its doors on October 5, 1928. The interior of the club is decorated with objets dart created and contributed by members over the decades. The building showcases exquisite tile sculptures from Pewabic Pottery, including the Scarab Club logo. The ceiling beams of the lounge once served as the clubs guest book, and poet Vachel Lindsay signed as one of the first visitors. Since then, signing the beam has become a ceremonial honor, and the autographs of artists including John Sloan, Diego Rivera, Pablo Davis, Marcel Duchamp, Norman Rockwell, and John Sinclair appear on the beams.</p><br>
<p>American artist, inventor, and automobile pioneer George Schuyler Hodges, of Pontiac, Michigan, was a charter member of the club.</p><br>
<p>The club&#39;s themed costumed balls, held from 1917 to 1950, were the single most important social event in Detroit each year. Life magazine covered the 1937 event with a two-page photo spread, and The Detroit News and The Detroit Free Press also gave the annual balls two pages in their photo sections. Radio station WJR broadcast live from the 1937 "Scarabean Cruise" ball.</p><br>
<p>For many years The Book Club of Detroit held its regular meetings at the Scarab Club.</p><br>
<p>The annual Exhibition of Michigan Artists at the Detroit Institute of Arts was originated by the Scarab Club in 1911. In 1915 the Scarab Club Prize became the top award and in 1917 the first Scarab Club Gold Medal was awarded. The gold medal is still the club&#39;s most prestigious award, given each December at the Gold Medal Exhibition and Dinner.</p><br>
<h2>The building</h2><br>
<p>The clubhouse was built in 1928 in the Arts and Crafts style by architect and member Lancelot Sukert. The exterior mosaic tiles, which appeared in 1928 renderings, were not completed until the 1980s, when they were finished by W.P.A. muralist and member Edgar Yaeger, who was a junior member of the club in 1928. The ceramic scarab embedded over the front entrance was designed by sculptor Horace Colby and fired at Pewabic Pottery.</p><br>
<p>The original paneled wood entry in the front hints at intrigue inside, while a brick-walled courtyard in the rear of the building conjures up more pastoral images, with its exquisite flower gardens, fountain and statuary. The club contains several galleries and lounges, as well as six working artist studios. The second floor lounge is unique for its massive ceiling beams painted by members in 1928 and signed by more than 230 artists since, including Diego Rivera, Norman Rockwell, Marshall Fredericks and Pablo Davis. Other beams were painted to depict events in the club&#39;s history. The lounge also contains a fireplace with mural depicting different levels of club membership, painted by Paul Honoré. Original mica and metal lighting and furnishings complete the decor.</p><br>
<p>Scottys Castle  is a two-story Mission Revival and Spanish Colonial Revival style villa located in the Grapevine Mountains of northern Death Valley in Death Valley National Park, California, US. Scottys Castle is named for gold prospector Walter E. Scott, although Scott never owned it, nor is it an actual castle.</p><br>
<p>The ranch is located about 45 mi north of Stovepipe Wells, California, via California State Route 190 to Scotty&#39;s Castle Road, or about a three-hour drive from Las Vegas, Nevada.</p><br>
<p>Scottys Castle was severely damaged by flooding in October 2015, and a fire in 2021 that destroyed the historic garage/workshop that was used as the visitor center. These caused Scottys Castle to be temporarily closed to the public. On December 9, 2023, the official social media accounts of Death Valley National Park announced that they were opening “Scotty’s Castle Flood Recovery Walking Tours” for Winter 2023/2024, running most Sunday mornings from December 10, 2023, through March 10, 2024, despite many of the park&#39;s main roads still being closed from damage caused by Hurricane Hilary.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction began on Scottys Castle in 1922, and cost between $1.5 and $2.5 million. Prospector, performer, and con man Walter Scott, born in Cynthiana, Kentucky, also known as "Death Valley Scotty," convinced Chicago millionaire Albert Mussey Johnson to invest in Scotts gold mine in the Death Valley area. Though initially angered when the mine turned out to be fraudulent, Johnson was fascinated with the colorful Scott and the two men struck up an unlikely friendship. By 1937, Johnson had acquired more than 1,500 acre in Grapevine Canyon, where the ranch is located.</p><br>
<p>After Johnson and his wife Bessie made several trips to the region, and his health improved, construction began. It was Mrs. Johnson&#39;s idea to build something comfortable for their vacations in the area, and the villa eventually became a winter home.</p><br>
<p>The Johnsons hired Martin de Dubovay as the architect, Mat Roy Thompson as the engineer and head of construction, and Charles Alexander MacNeilledge as the designer.</p><br>
<p>Unknown to the Johnsons, the initial survey was incorrect, and the land they built Death Valley Ranch on was actually government land; their land was farther up Grapevine Canyon. Construction halted as they resolved this mistake, but before it could resume, the stock market crashed in 1929, making it difficult for Johnson to finish construction. Having lost a considerable amount of money, the Johnsons used the Death Valley Ranch to produce income by letting rooms out, upon the suggestion of Scott.</p><br>
<p>The Johnsons died without heirs and had hoped that the National Park Service would purchase the property, and in 1970, the National Park Service purchased the villa for $850,000 from the Gospel Foundation (the socially-oriented charity Johnson founded in 1946), to which the Johnsons had left the property.</p><br>
<p>Walter Scott, who was taken care of by the Gospel Foundation after Johnsons death, died in 1954 and was buried on the hill overlooking Scottys Castle.</p><br>
<h2>Tours</h2><br>
<h3>In person</h3><br>
<p>Approximately 100,000 people tour the villa each year. The Johnsons original furnishings and clothing can still be seen today. The National Park Service gives guided tours of Scottys Castle for a fee. Park rangers dress in 1930s style clothes to help take the visitor back in time. During the tour, guests are treated to the sounds of a 1,121-pipe Welte theater organ.</p><br>
<p>An underground mystery tour is also available for those wishing to see the inner workings of the building. One-quarter mile of tunnels run under the building, where visitors can visit the powerhouse and see thousands of tiles that were to be used for the never-finished swimming pool. The tunnels also contain hundreds of nickel-iron battery cells, used to regulate power and provide backup power. The main house tour is ADA accessible, but the underground tour is not.</p><br>
<h3>Video</h3><br>
<p>Scottys Castle is featured in Episode 607 of Californias Gold with Huell Howser.</p><br>
<h3>Virtual reality</h3><br>
<p>Scotty&#39;s Castle can be toured in 3D virtual reality from a computer, smartphone, or with VR goggles - the result of a collaboration between the Death Valley Conservancy and the National Park Service.</p><br>
<h2>Water and electricity</h2><br>
<p>The springs of Grapevine Canyon provided the water supply for the ranch and were used to generate electricity. The springs, located about 300 ft higher than the villa, generated enough water flow and pressure to turn a Pelton wheel, which ran the generator that furnished the villas electricity. The power was regulated and backed up by the large bank of nickel–iron batteries in the houses tunnels. The springs provided enough water to meet all the needs of the ranch, with enough left for other uses.</p><br>
<p>A water fountain was constructed in the Great Hall, where water dripped down a rock face creating evaporative cooling and into a catch basin for recirculation. A 1930s solar water heater, much larger than today&#39;s solar water heaters, is near the main house, and a large stock of railroad ties salvaged from the Tonopah and Tidewater Railroad is in the area.</p><br>
<h2>2015 flood damage</h2><br>
<p>On October 18, 2015, the Death Valley area was hit by a significant rain storm, receiving nearly 3 in of rain as the storm stalled over the Grapevine Canyon area for five hours. Flash flooding struck Scotty&#39;s Castle, leaving mud and debris stacked along the perimeter of the structures, up to 1 ft high inside the visitor center, and the access road to the property was destroyed. The flood caused the property to be closed for an extended period of time while repairs to the property are carried out and a new access road is built. The NPS has stated that the castle itself is not likely to re-open to the public until 2023, though "flood recovery tours" of the grounds happened between December 2017 and April 14, 2018.</p><br>
<h2>2021 outbuildings fire</h2><br>
<p>A fire on April 22, 2021, destroyed the historic garage/workshop dating from 1922 that was used as the visitor center, along with another historic outbuilding on the property. Upon investigation, the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection reported that the fire started inside the Visitor Center. However, investigators were not able to conclusively determine the cause of the fire. While the main castle building was unscathed, this delayed the property rehabilitation efforts and pushed back the public reopening until 2023. The National Park Service intends to rebuild the garage/workshop.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Scotty&#39;s Castle was featured in a 2023 episode of the paranormal reality show Ghost Adventures, coming as a result of several claims surrounding the location being haunted. These claims revolve around allegations and interviews regarding Walter Scott, the 2015 flood, the 2021 fire, and recountings of activity in the mansion. The Ghost Adventures team experienced several instances of what they interpreted as paranormal activity, including electronic voice phenomenon recordings (EVPs) and strange SLS camera footage, IR footage and photographs.</p><br>
<p>Old East is a residence hall located at the north part of campus in University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Built in 1793 by slave labor, it became the first state university building in the United States. The Wren Building at the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, was built in 1695, but William and Mary did not become a public university until 1906.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Colonel John Hogan entered into a contract December 1792, to make 150,000 bricks at the site of where Old East would be built. He also donated 200 acres towards the university grounds. The cornerstone of Old East was laid ceremoniously on October 12, 1793, by William Richardson Davie, who served as the governor of North Carolina from 1798 to 1799. The building was originally two stories tall and contained sixteen rooms. The design reflects the university trustees vision of a quadrangle that ran north toward the town of Chapel Hill. Although the cost of construction is unknown, there are records from 1799 indicating that the university spent a total of $12,180 for work on Stewards Hall, Old East, Person Hall, and the President&#39;s House. After its construction, Old East functioned as both a classroom building and a Residence Hall; today it is exclusively a Residence Hall.</p><br>
<p>The contractor in charge of the construction of Old East was of Chatham County. By 1804, the building needed significant repairs and was renovated with new doors, window sashes, ladders, and the roof was repainted. The third story was added to the building in 1823. Alexander Jackson Davis was hired by the university in 1844 to lengthen the building by a third and to create a new north entrance. The new rooms were used by the Philanthropic Society and also served as a library. Davis&#39; other additions included large north-facing windows encased by brick panels and two brick porches on the east side of the building. Thomas Day, a skilled and respected African-American cabinetmaker, designed and built the interior woodwork in the society rooms. Old East remained the home of the Philanthropic Society until New East was completed in 1860.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1877, Zebulon Baird Vance, the Governor of North Carolina and chair of the Board of Trustees, declared the anniversary of Old East&#39;s construction, October 12, was University Day and should "be observed with appropriate ceremonies under the direction of the faculty." Subsequent celebrations of University Day have included speeches by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 and President Bill Clinton in 1993. Students are released from classes the morning of University Day and many migrate to the Old East Birthday Bash, which has in the past included things like cake, athletic signings, puppies, appearances by the chancellor, dance routines, and a capella performances. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service December 21, 1965.</p><br>
<p>The Old Well and Old East, as the earliest buildings at UNC, have long been the symbols of the university. There are some collections of art about Old East and the Old Well in, North Carolina, as well as in UNC-Chapel Hill&#39;s Wilson Library. It is located in the Chapel Hill Historic District.</p><br>
<p>Fort Wayne is located in the city of Detroit, Michigan, at the foot of Livernois Avenue in the Delray neighborhood. The fort is situated on the Detroit River at a point where it is under half a mile to the Ontario shore. The original 1848 limestone barracks  still stands, as does the 1845 fort . On the grounds but outside the original fort are additional barracks, officers quarters, a recreation building, a theater, commissary, guard house, garage, and stables. A large warehouse and the post fire station were torn down in 1976 and the two-story hospital was torn down in 2007.</p><br>
<p>The fort sits on 96 acre. Since the 1970s, 83 acre, including the original fort and a number of buildings, has been operated by the city of Detroit. The remaining area is operated by the USA Army Corps of Engineers as a boatyard. The fort was designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1958 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Fort Wayne is Detroit&#39;s third fort. The first, Fort Pontchartrain du Detroit, was built by the French in 1701 near current day Hart Plaza. This fort, constructed shortly after Cadillac landed, was manned by the French until they surrendered it to the British in 1760 during the French and Indian War. The British constructed the second fort, Fort Lernoult, a few years later, centered on current day Fort and Shelby streets. They manned the post until 1796 when the United States assumed control over the site and renamed it Fort Shelby. Following the end of the War of 1812, Fort Shelby fell into disrepair, and in 1826 the City of Detroit purchased and demolished it.</p><br>
<p>The site of Fort Wayne originally consisted of a high sand mound with freshwater springs along the marshy waterfront of the Detroit River; it is from this geography that Springwells Township (later annexed into the City of Detroit) took its name. The site has a history going back to about the year 1000 A.D. Approximately 19 Native American burial mounds were present in the immediate area, as well as a larger mound at the mouth of the Rouge River. The present bastioned fort was built atop one of these burial mounds. In the early 20th century, the sole remaining burial mound at Fort Wayne was excavated by archaeologists from the University of Michigan and was found to contain human remains dating over 900 years old. A type of pottery found there is unique to the site; it was subsequently dubbed "Wayne Ware."</p><br>
<p>When Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain, later known as Fort Detroit, he also purportedly made arrangements with the local Potawatomi people to set up a small village at the future site of Fort Wayne for purposes of trading; this was occupied and thriving by 1710.</p><br>
<p>The opening shots of the War of 1812 were fired in the vicinity of the fort&#39;s future site, the "sand hill at Springwells". Although war had not yet been officially declared, Michigan militiamen bombarded the town of Sandwich, Upper Canada (later annexed into Windsor), on July 4, 1812. Later in the course of the war, British general Isaac Brock crossed the narrowest part of the Detroit River with his troops and landed on the future Fort Wayne site before marching to Detroit. In the ensuing Siege of Detroit, American general William Hull, believing himself completely surrounded and outnumbered, surrendered Fort Shelby to the British without offering any resistance. The British later abandoned the fort and American troops reoccupied it. In 1815, the future Fort Wayne site was where American government and the local Native American tribal leaders met to sign the Treaty of Springwells, which marked the end of hostilities between the government and tribes that allied with the British during the war. Among those present for the signing of the treaty were territorial governor Lewis Cass and General William Henry Harrison.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1830s, small, short-lived rebellions occurred in Canada to protest corruption within its colonial government. Many Americans believed there was widespread Canadian support for these rebellions and formed volunteer militias to overthrow Canadas colonial government. This led to a series of militia attacks on Canada known as the Patriot War. American troops were mustered to suppress the American volunteers and maintain Americas official neutrality in the conflict. However, at the same time, the United States government realized there was a lack of fortifications along the northern border to repel a potential British attack, and in particular, no counterpart to the British Fort Malden located in Amherstburg. In 1841, Congress appropriated funds to build a chain of forts stretching from the east coast to the Minnesota Territory, including one at Detroit.</p><br>
<p>Soon afterward, the Army sent Lieutenant Montgomery C. Meigs to Detroit. Meigs bought riverfront farm property three miles below Detroit, in Springwells Township, at the point on the Detroit River closest to Canada. Construction of the fort began in 1842, with Meigs overseeing. The original fortifications were cedar-revetted earthen walls. The fort was completed in 1851 at a cost of $150,000. The Army named the new fort for Revolutionary War hero General "Mad" Anthony Wayne, who had taken possession of Detroit from the British in 1796.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and construction</h2><br>
<p>The original fort is a bastioned rectangle with walls of earthen ramparts faced with cedar, covering vaulted brick casemates that contain embrasures (openings) for antipersonnel flank howitzers. The design was based on fortifications developed by Sebastian Vauban, a 17th-century French military engineer, and taught by Dennis Hart Mahan at the USA Military Academy. Artillery emplacements are atop the walls, designed for 10 in cannon mounted to fire over the parapet, although there is no indication that artillery intended for the fort was ever installed. There is a dry moat surrounding the fort, and a demilune facing the river.</p><br>
<p>Although the fort today is substantially similar to the original construction, some changes have been made. Starting in 1863, under the supervision of Thomas J. Cram, the walls of the fort were reconstructed, replacing the original cedar facing with brick. The new scarp (outside wall) used the semi-detached scarp concept developed by French engineer Lazare Carnot. His concepts were also used in the gently-sloping counterscarp embankment, designed to facilitate counterattacks during a siege. While the original sally port in the southeast bastion still exists, a motor gate was added in 1938. This arched entrance was constructed through the fort&#39;s walls to accommodate vehicular traffic; later, the arches were removed to fit larger trucks.</p><br>
<p>Within the fort (and built at approximately the same time) is a Federal style, -story limestone troop barracks, consisting of five independent but adjacent sections - each intended to house one company. Each section contains a ground floor mess, two floors of barracks rooms, and an attic. Brick additions were added to the rear of the building in 1861, housing washrooms and kitchens. Next to the barracks is a powder magazine, also constructed of limestone. Additional buildings originally built within the fort, such as officer&#39;s housing, have long since been destroyed.</p><br>
<p>Numerous additional buildings have been built on fort grounds outside of the fort. A row of wooden Victorian officer&#39;s homes was built in the 1880s. In 1937, these homes were completely refurbished and clad in brick by WPA workers. One home was restored in the 1980s to its original appearance. A Spanish–American War guardhouse, built in 1889, is in the center of the fort grounds. The guard house was restored in 1984. In 1890, a brick hospital was built, with a later addition in 1898. In 1905, a new guardhouse, still in use today, was built near the gate to the fort grounds. Around the same time, four barracks buildings for enlisted men were built, as well as a service club (1903), headquarters (1905), and post office. By 1928, duplex housing for senior NCOs had been constructed. In 1939, more NCO houses were built in a row facing Jefferson Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>Historical use</h2><br>
<p>Before any cannon had been installed at the newly constructed Fort Wayne, the United States and Britain peacefully resolved their differences, eliminating the need for a fort on the Detroit River. Fort Wayne remained unused for a decade after its initial construction, manned only by a single watchman. There is evidence suggesting that the fort was a final stop on the Underground Railroad during these dormant years, as the Irish farmer who lived next to the fort&#39;s demilune operated a small ferry to Canada to supplement his income, the only such ferry in this part of the city at that time.</p><br>
<p>In 1861, the American Civil War again made Fort Wayne relevant. British sympathy for the Confederacy renewed fears of an attack from Canada, leading to a reconstruction and strengthening of the fort walls. Two weeks after the beginning of the war, the Michigan 1st Volunteer Infantry Regiment was mustered into service at Fort Wayne. For the rest of the Civil War, the fort served as a mustering center for troops from Michigan, as well as a place for veterans to recover from their wounds. Alfred Gibbs was the first commander to occupy the fort, serving his parole at Fort Wayne after being captured by the Confederacy.</p><br>
<p>After the Civil War and until 1920, Fort Wayne served as a garrison post, with regiments rotated from the western frontier for rest. In 1875, the city of Detroit annexed a portion of Springwells Township; in 1884, it annexed more of Springwells Township east of Livernois Avenue, including all land adjacent to Fort Wayne.</p><br>
<p>During the Spanish–American War, troops from the fort headed to Cuba and the Philippines. The fort&#39;s guardhouse also housed the first telephone exchange in southwestern Detroit.</p><br>
<p>During the Red Scare following World War I, the fort served as a temporary detention center for accused communists awaiting trial. In 1921, the world&#39;s first motorized ride-on lawn mower, patented by Ransom E. Olds and manufactured by the Ideal Power Mower Co. of Lansing, was used at Fort Wayne (as well as several other sites) for promotional purposes. During the Great Depression, the fort was opened to homeless families and it housed the Civilian Conservation Corps.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, Fort Wayne had become instrumental in the acquisition of cars, trucks, and spare parts for the military. This motor vehicle supply function reached its peak in World War II, when Fort Wayne was designated Motor Supply Depot and additional buildings were constructed for warehousing and shipping. At that time, Fort Wayne was the largest motor supply depot in the entire world, the command center controlling the flow of materiel from the automobile factories to the citywide network of storage and staging facilities, which included the Michigan State Fairgrounds, and the Port of Detroit terminal. Every single tank, truck, jeep, tire, or spare part that was sent to the fronts of World War II from the Detroit factories came through Fort Wayne. At that time, there was a railroad spur along the riverfront, docks for large ships, and over 2,000 (mostly civilian women) workers were employed; the drivers and mechanics of the Red Ball Express were also trained here. Fort Wayne served as home to Italian prisoners of war (POWs) captured during the North African Campaign, who were employed as servants, cooks, and janitors. After Italy&#39;s surrender, the POWs were given the chance to return to Italy, but many chose to remain and settle in Detroit.</p><br>
<p>At the end of World War II, plans were made to close the fort. In 1948, the fort and original barracks were turned over to the City of Detroit&#39;s Historical Commission for operation as a military museum. In the 1950s, anti-aircraft guns were installed at the fort, later upgraded to Nike-Ajax missiles. During the Cold War, Fort Wayne served as an entrance station for the armed services, with thousands of enlistees and draftees being sworn in during the Korean War and Vietnam War. The fort was again used to provide housing to displaced families after the 1967 12th Street Riot, with the last families staying at the fort until 1971.</p><br>
<p>The remainder of Fort Wayne was turned over piecemeal to the city of Detroit, with the last bit of property delivered in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>From 1949 until 2006, the Fort Wayne Military Museum was operated by the Detroit Historical Museum. Since early 2006, the fort has been operated by the Detroit Recreation Department, assisted by the Historic Fort Wayne Coalition, and the Detroit Historical Society.</p><br>
<p>The fort hosts historic reenactments (usually Civil War), spring and fall flea markets, concerts, youth soccer league matches, and Hispanic and Boy Scout events, and is open for some civic events. Areas can be rented for special events and family reunions. Also on the grounds are the remaining ancient Native American burial mound and the Tuskegee Airmen National Historical Museum.</p><br>
<p>Spurred in part by construction of the new Gordie Howe International Bridge, nearby, the fort has been studied for possible inclusion in the national park system. The National Park Service has previously assisted in identifying ways to preserve the fort and draw visitors. Among the possibilities, the fort could become part of River Raisin National Battlefield Park, based in Monroe, to the southwest.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, Fort Wayne hosted the Finish Line of the 31st season (subtitled Reality Showdown) of the long-running CBS&#39;s reality competition The Amazing Race.</p><br>
<p>Fort Miami  was a British fort built in spring 1794 on the Maumee River in what was at the time territory claimed by the United States, and designated by the federal government as the Northwest Territory. The fort was located at the eastern edge of present-day Maumee, Ohio, southwest of Toledo.</p><br>
<p>The British built the fort to forestall a putative assault on Fort Detroit by Gen. "Mad" Anthony Wayne&#39;s army, then advancing northward in southwestern Ohio.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783) that ended the American Revolutionary War the region south of the Great Lakes and between the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers was assigned to the United States. The British, however, refused to evacuate their troops from their forts in the region, claiming that the USA had not complied with portions of the treatypre-Revolution debts owed to British merchants and subjects had not been paid, and confiscation of Loyalist properties continued.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1790s, the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, John Graves Simcoe, made an aggressive effort to aid the "Western Confederacy" of Native American tribes (the Shawnee, Miami, Wyandot, and others) in the Maumee and Wabash River watersheds in their ongoing war with American settlers. His ultimate goal was the establishment of an Indian barrier state in the region, as a way to protect Britain&#39;s North American fur trade ventures, and to block anticipated American attacks upon their remaining North American possessions.</p><br>
<h2>Fort history</h2><br>
<p>In spring 1794 the British built Fort Miami to forestall USA Gen. Anthony Waynes advance on Britains Fort Detroit, and to encourage the confederated tribes in their war of resistance. The fort was a log stockade, which had four bastions, each capable of mounting four cannon, a river battery, barracks, officers&#39; quarters, supply buildings, and various shops. A defensive ditch, 20 to 25 feet deep, ran along the land side of the fort.</p><br>
<p>In July 1794 General Wayne and his troops marched northward toward Fort Miami from Fort Recovery. Just south of Fort Miami, encountering a barricade erected by the Native Americans and a small party of Canadian militia, he ordered a charge and dispersed his adversaries in the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The Native Americans fled to the fort, but the commander shut them out. Beaten and disillusioned, the Native Americans dispersed and one year later their tribal elders gathered at Fort Greenville to negotiate with Wayne. The Treaty of Greenville opened most of the present State of Ohio and part of Indiana to United States settlement. In 1796, under the terms of the Jay Treaty (1794), the British abandoned Fort Miamialong with their other forts on American soil. Wayne occupied and garrisoned it, but about 1799 it was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The British again occupied the site during the War of 1812, which at the time was opposite the American Fort Meigs. During the War, Tecumseh, the Shawnee chief, and British officials maintained headquarters at the fort, from where they moved against Gen. William Henry Harrison at Fort Meigs.</p><br>
<p>Abandoned again in 1814, the fort was eventually demolished. Afterward, the site reverted to agricultural and, later, public park use.</p><br>
<h2>Present-day site</h2><br>
<p>Today, the site of Fort Miami sits as a small enclave within a residential development. Nothing remains of the original structure except parts of the earthworks.</p><br>
<p>In 1942 several Ohio civic and patriotic organizations acquired a part of the fort site. In 1953 the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society conducted preliminary excavations, and in 1957 the Historical Society of Northwestern Ohio placed a marker at the site, which remains undeveloped. In 1975, the site of the fort was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The site of the fort was incorporated with the Fallen Timbers Battlefield into Fallen Timbers Battlefield and Fort Miamis National Historic Site in 1999, under. The site is managed by the Metropolitan Park District of the Toledo Area (Metroparks), in partnership with the Ohio Historical Society, and is an affiliated area of the National Park System.</p><br>
<p>A state memorial has been created at the site. Ft. Miami Elementary School of the Maumee City School District is five blocks away and named after the fort.</p><br>
<p>Naumkeag is the former country estate of noted New York City lawyer Joseph Hodges Choate and Caroline Dutcher Sterling Choate, located at 5 Prospect Hill Road, Stockbridge, Massachusetts. The estate&#39;s centerpiece is a 44-room, Shingle Style country house designed principally by Stanford White of McKim, Mead & White, and constructed in 1885 and 1886.</p><br>
<p>The estate is noted for its large gardens, which were designed in the mid-20th century by noted landscape designer Fletcher Steele in conjunction with Mabel Choate. A National Historic Landmark District, Naumkeag is now owned by The Trustees of Reservations, who operate it as a nonprofit museum.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Naumkeag was designed by architect Stanford White of McKim, Mead & White in 1885 as the summer estate for Joseph Hodges Choate (1832–1917), a prominent New York City attorney and American ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1899 to 1905, and his wife Caroline Dutcher Sterling Choate, an artist and advocate for women&#39;s education. Naumkeag was later the residence of his daughter Mabel.</p><br>
<p>The house is built in the Shingle Style with a wood-shingled exterior featuring brick and stone towers, prominent gables and large porch, and interiors with fine woodwork. It contains the Choate family&#39;s furniture, Chinese porcelain, and artwork collected from America, Europe, and the Far East.</p><br>
<p>The house sits within 8 acre of terraced gardens (including The Rose Garden, The Afternoon Garden, and The Chinese Garden) and landscaped grounds surrounded by 40 acre of woodland, meadow, and pasture. Its grounds were first designed in the late 1880s by Nathan Franklin Barrett, then replanned and expanded between 1926 and 1956 by the noted landscape designer Fletcher Steele. Barretts original designs included two terraces, perennial beds (now the Chinese Garden), and an evergreen topiary. Steeles additions include the Afternoon Garden (1926); arguably his most famous design, the Blue Steps (1938); and the Chinese Garden (1936–1955).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Colonial settlement of the Prospect Hill section of Stockbridge began with the towns founding as a Native American mission community in the 1730s. Choates family had vacationed in Stockbridge (where Choate&#39;s law partners also summered), and had picnicked on the property. Choate persuaded Field (whom he had opposed in the Boss Tweed legal cases) to part with 40 acre on the south side of the hill.</p><br>
<p>Choate was a longtime friend of architect Charles McKim, but most of the architectural design work was done by McKims partner Stanford White. Although design work began shortly after the purchase, construction was delayed by the death of Choates son. The house was completed in 1886 at a cost of about $35,000. White was also instrumental in providing the decorations and furnishings of the house, traveling to Europe with the Choates for the purpose.</p><br>
<p>The house underwent a variety of alterations and additions, some guided by architects George de Gersdorff (Joe Choates nephew) and Charles Platt. The library was expanded in 1897, enclosing a space that had once served as a south-facing porch. The number of bathrooms was raised from three to nine in the early years of the 20th century. These changes, which included the addition of a porch to the master bedroom, necessitated the addition of a dormer on the third floor and a number of new windows. During the period of Mabel Choates ownership only modest changes were made.</p><br>
<p>Joseph Choate first offered the landscape design to Frederick Law Olmsted, but rejected his proposal to place the house halfway down the hill, where a favorite oak tree was located. The landscaping contract was instead given to Nathan Barrett, a self-taught designer then best known for his municipal work. Barretts vision of the landscape was implemented between 1884 and 1894. His design included formal flower gardens near the house, and had a broad meadow slope down the hill, with an orchard. Choate commissioned Whites friend and sculptor Frederick MacMonnies to produce a work; the result was Young Faun with Heron.</p><br>
<p>Between 1895 and 1925 minor changes were made to the gardens under the guidance of Percival Gallagher and Marian Coffin. Design decisions in the later years were dominated by Choates daughter Mabel, especially after Joseph Choates death in 1917. Mable Choate was a "preservationist, horticulturist, traveler, and collector of art." Mabel acquired full control of the estate after her mother&#39;s death in 1929. Mabel Choate began her long and fruitful collaboration with designer Fletcher Steele in 1926. Upon her death in 1958 the estate was bequeathed to the Trustees of Reservations, to be "an authentic representation of the times and manner of living which it now reflects." Of the approximately 700 gardens designed by Fletcher Steele, the Naumkeag garden is one of only two that now exist and the only one which is open to the public.</p><br>
<p>Naumkeag&#39;s main house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975; the listing was expanded and the entire estate was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 2007. Its designation was made for the architecture and content of the house, which are well-preserved examples of a Gilded Age country estate, and for the innovative landscape design work of Fletcher Steele.</p><br>
